Electric scooters and bikes - The Sustainability Management Wiki

Authors: Visvaksena Arumugam, Joshua Roth
Edited by: Joschua Elbing, Lilly Folkens, Niklas Schenk
Last updated: March 26, 2026

Executive summary

Electric scooters and bikes (collectively, electric two-wheelers) offer a practical pathway for organizations to cut transport emissions, improve last-mile connectivity, and broaden access to active mobility. Pedelecs (e-bikes with pedal assist) and throttle-controlled e-scooters use compact electric drivetrains and batteries to augment or replace human effort, enabling faster and less strenuous travel for short urban trips.

Economically, falling battery costs and scaling production have lowered lifetime operating expenses, even where purchase prices remain higher than conventional bicycles. Total user costs tend to sit below those of fuel-powered two-wheelers and many car-based alternatives for high-mileage urban use. Rapid industry expansion—led by China and growing hubs in India and Europe—reflects consumer preferences for speed, convenience, and reduced physical exertion, supported by governmental incentives and employer adoption for delivery and commuting.

Ecologically, the production phase (especially batteries) carries notable impacts, but electric two-wheelers typically deliver substantially lower use-phase emissions than internal combustion vehicles—particularly when powered by cleaner electricity. Life-cycle assessments highlight minimal energy consumption per kilometer for e-bikes and show that design for durability, battery recovery, and renewable charging further improves performance. Shared e-scooter lifespans require attention to minimize per-kilometer impacts.

Socially, electric assistance makes cycling more inclusive across ages, fitness levels, and challenging geographies (hills, wind). Micromobility influences modal choice: it can displace some walking and transit trips, but it also complements public transport for first/last mile access. Health benefits arise from increased physical activity and reduced ambient pollution, though exposure along busy corridors and safety risks must be managed.

Safety and governance are central. Conflicts emerge where fast micromobility mixes with pedestrians. Separated lanes, speed management, helmet use, sober riding, and user education reduce injuries. Regulatory frameworks vary widely across regions but converge on speed and power limits, operational rules in pedestrian areas, and, in some cases, licensing and helmet requirements. Well-designed policies align micromobility with public transport, equity goals, and street space efficiency.

For organizations, priority actions include: selecting appropriate vehicle types for tasks; planning charging and secure parking; implementing training and safety rules; maintaining fleets for durability; and tracking outcomes (emissions, cost, delivery times, employee health). With thoughtful design and governance, electric two-wheelers can lower costs, cut emissions, relieve congestion and noise, and expand mobility options in a resilient, people-centered way.

1 Description and history

The transition towards sustainable travelling methods is a crucial part of a net-zero emission future, as the transport sector is one major emitter of greenhouse gas emissions.¹ E-bikes and e-scooters can assist this transition, especially for shorter distances.² E-bikes are two wheeled vehicles, which have an electric motor and can be differentiated into two groups by the type of torque generation. Pedelecs are very similar to bicycles, as they also have pedals. The torque applied by the driver’s pedalling is then assisted by an electric motor 3 They will be referred to as e-bikes in this article. The second type are pedal-less two-wheelers, similar to mopeds but with an electric motor.³⁴ They will be referred to as e-scooters. This chapter is about the basic concept of e-bikes and e-scooters, their functionality and their history.

The motor of a pedelec is accompanied by a power source, torque and speed sensors, as well as a control unit which unites all components and serves as the brain of an e-bike.³⁵ Usually the amount of the electrical support is set by the driver on an user interface on the handlebars, who can decide how much physical effort they want to invest.³⁶ There are two main types of motors for e-bikes. In-wheel mounted hub motors are located at the front or rear wheels axis. They require low maintenance, are affordable and are harder to distinguish from unmotorized bicycles. They are common for most types of pedelecs.³ The other motor type is a mid-drive system, where the motor is located near the pedalling axis. Usually, brushless direct current motors are used. The motor is connected to the bike’s gears, which is why the motor is allowed to have more optimal output speeds than in-wheel mounted motors.⁷ There is more space available for larger motors, allowing more torque to be generated more efficiently. This type of motor is often installed in mountain pedelecs.³

E-Scooters are similar to pedelecs in terms of having a battery, an electric motor and a controller. Additionally, they have a throttle usually located at the handlebar, which makes the e-scooter accelerate if it is activated. Starting from a stand-still situation, some e-scooters need the rider to push off the ground to get started, while other e-scooters can accelerate entirely by themselves.⁸

The first ideas of e-scooters and e-bikes and were developed in the 1880s in France and the US respectively. In France, a pedal-less three wheeler with an electric motor was designed, where the throttle was controlled by a hand lever system. In contrast, the battery powered idea from the US was already similar to today’s pedelecs, as it had a rear in-wheel mounted hub motor and a battery connected to the frame.⁹ In the 20th century, companies like Phillips, Simplex, Panasonic and Sanyo Electric all designed and produced electrical two-wheelers, which did not catch on yet. Due to advancing technologies, especially in terms of battery and motor technology, they became more attractive only after the early 2000s, as the power output and range increased. Mass production and modular design made e-bikes easier to produce and therefore cheaper for the customers.⁴ Up until 2017, the yearly sales of e-bikes in Europe and North America as grown to 2.2 and 0.3 million units respectively. This number continued rising in the following years, reaching 5.6 and 0.8 million units respectively. In China, over 30 million e-bikes are sold annually.¹⁰ The number of e-scooter rentals has increased worldwide after their introduction in 2017.¹¹¹² In 2019, 39 million rentals were recorded. Until 2023, the rentals more than doubled, reaching over 91 million.¹¹ Today, various pedelec types for different tasks like mountain biking, sports or daily commutes are part of the mainstream e-bike market.⁹ Their maximum speed is usually between 25 and 45 km/h, not restricted by technology but by policies in the respective country. The range of an e-bike is highly dependent on the type, capacity and age of the battery. In 2007, the expected range of an e-bike was about 20-30 kilometers.⁷ With modern e-bikes, trips of over 55 km can be performed easily.¹⁰ E-scooters can have very different appearances. Some are similar to motorized scooters, include a seat and have a bulkier appearance. On the other side of the spectrum, e-scooters are built like a larger version of children’s scooters with a slim frame and without a seat.⁴¹³

E-bikes and e-scooters often weigh at least 20kg, which is more than the weight of an unmotorized bicycle, which on average weighs between 7 and 10 kg.⁴¹⁴ The charging duration depends on parameters like the type of battery, the state of charge, and the type of charging device. A complete charging process usually takes about 2 to 8 hours.¹⁵ In terms of e-scooters, the consequences of rental service will be focused on.

2 Economic performance

E-bikes and e-scooters account for one of the fastest growing segments of transport market with China holding a market share of about 90% of global e-bike sales as of 2012.[/mfn]⁴ In this chapter, three important key points with respect to the economics of e-bikes have been covered to understand how the cost have evolved over time, pricing trends across different countries, growth trajectory, employment, consumer preferences, and cost comparison with its counterparts.

2.1 Technology cost trends

Global e-scooter market is valued at about USD 19.43 billion in 2024 and with an anticipation to reach USD 50.15 billion in 2032 at a CAGR of 12.6%.¹⁶ As of 2012 data, an e-bike price ranges from EUR 100 in China to EUR 5600 in Germany or Netherlands.¹⁷ And with rapid growth potential, improvement in manufacturing technologies and economic of scale there should be a reduction in cost incurred to manufacture the e-bikes and e-scooters. Batteries account for about 30 – 40% cost of the e-scooters.¹⁸ And with recent developments in the lithium-ion battery technology, the battery prices have dropped significantly to USD 99 per kWh in 2025, a 40% decrease from 2022. This directly impact the cost of e-scooters.¹⁹

Over the years, e-scooters have become more affordable in most parts of the world, and especially in China, it has seen a 30% decline in the price from 1999 to 2005.²⁰ But in the same period, the prices in Germany and the Netherlands haven’t reacted that much to the declining production cost, because of introduction of new technologies which increased pricing, like LED lighting, lithium-ion battery and disk braking system.²¹ The total user costs, i.e. the sum of costs for purchase, maintenance, and use of e-bikes and larger electric two-wheelers are higher than those for bicycles and public transportation, but lower than conventionally powered two-wheelers.¹⁷ Even though e-scooters have a high upfront cost mainly due to expensive battery packs, their operational cost are significantly lower with less to very minimal maintenance cost. When measured on a cost-per-kilometer basis, e-scooter over its lifetime, has less cents per kilometer particularly in high-mileage urban scenarios when compared with traditional two-wheelers or even public transports.¹⁸

2.2 Industry development

With ever-growing demand to manufacture electric two-wheelers, the manufacturers are expanding production capacity using automated factories. For example Ola Electric’s Future Factory in India now produces hundreds of thousands of units annually.²² Global e-scooter and e-bike sales have reached 50 million units in 2022, up from 30 million in.2019. And India has seen a 45% Year over Year growth due to state and central government subsidies giving up to USD 200 incentive per scooter.²³ Currently the production hub for manufacturing of electric two-wheelers is dominated by China with 75% of market share, followed by India with 15% and EU with 8% market share. Employment in China’s e-scooter sector exceeds over 500,000 employees, with major hub in Zhejiang and Tianjin.²⁴

Investments in startups and large manufacturer’s research and development departments promote electric two-wheelers market to a large extent. While entering the market, startups often leverage advanced battery technologies and innovative business models such as battery leasing and subscription-based services to capture market share. With increasing competition with a greater number of competitors, continuous technological innovation to improve the range and performance of the vehicle with reduction in pricing is necessary.²⁵ To achieve lower cost per kilometer, manufacturers need to adopt advanced design methodologies in reducing component counts and enhancing energy efficiency.²⁶

2.3 Market dynamics

End users’ expectation on the need to buy an e-bike or e-scooter varies drastically but some of the most common motivating factors to invest in them are increased speed, reduced physical exertion 5 and subsidies.²³ Apart from that, urban congestion, growing environmental concerns, improvements of health through physical activity and lowering local air pollution are some of the other main but indirect factors in adoption of e-bikes and e-scooters, that are mostly relevant in densely populated cities.²⁷ The number of people who are using an e-scooter or who are willing to replace other transportation methods is rising, which leads to a gradual increase in market share.²⁸

Electric two-wheelers are becoming a preferred option for last mile connectivity and delivery services in the logistics and transportation industry. With most of the company aiming to reduce their carbon footprint by minimising the CO2 emission. Giants like Amazon and many e-commerce and quick commerce startups are opting for electric two-wheelers.²⁹

3 Ecological performance

Electric two-wheelers are widely considered as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional vehicles, but their actual ecological impact requires in-depth analysis from raw material extraction and production, through use, to end-of-life disposal. Studies show that e-scooter produce 50-70% lesser emission per kilometer than fuel powered scooters when charged with renewable energy.¹⁷ In this chapter, the ecological performance across electric two-wheeler’s lifecycle is summarised, focusing on carbon footprint, energy consumption, resource use and temporal improvements, and its environmental impact on urban congestion and noise pollution are highlighted.

3.1 Life cycle assessment (LCA)

Electric two-wheelers exhibit a higher production phase environmental impact, largely due to the manufacturing processes of batteries and other specialised components. The environmental impacts of electric two-wheelers have shifted from vehicle use to vehicle production, end-of-life treatment, and electricity generation.¹⁷ For instance, e-bikes charged with renewable energy have a carbon footprint of 5–10 g CO2/km, compared to 20–30 g CO2/km when charged with coal-based electricity.³⁰

Additionally, it was observed that the impact is relatively small for e-bikes and larger for e-scooters, based on their respective vehicle dimensions. This disparity can be attributed to a greater quantity of energy required to produce the battery system for larger vehicles, resulting in increased CO2 emissions and energy consumption during production.³¹ In contrast to conventional two-wheelers, the utilization of electric scooters during their operational phase has been demonstrated to have a significantly reduced environmental impact. The primary benefit of electric scooters is the increased energy efficiency of electric motors and the absence of tailpipe emissions. When operated with electricity from a mix of renewable or low-carbon sources, electric scooters produce significantly less operational CO2 emissions compared to fossil-fuel-based vehicles.³⁰ Following the operational phase, electric two-wheelers have a lower environmental impact due to their simpler design and smaller material quantities. The effective recycling and recovery of the materials from batteries significantly minimizes the effects, maintaining resource depletion and residual emissions at a minimum compared to the more complicated end-of-life processes for larger vehicles. However, due to their compact size and lightweight nature, the fate of e-bike batteries is more difficult to predict, and it is probable that a lower percentage of these batteries will be recycled when compared to electric car batteries. This represents a significant challenge for researchers and policymakers.³¹ Especially rental e-scooters suffer from short lifespans, as they receive rough treatment by the users. Therefore, the operational phase is relatively short in comparison to other transportation methods, which increases the average resources used and greenhouse gases emitted per kilometer.³²

3.2 Energy consumption and resource use

Energy consumption accounts for a fundamental factor in assessing the environmental efficacy of electric transportation. Electric cars consume About 0.623 MJ/km, i.e., 0.173 kWh/km in their lifetime operation, and approximately 0.133 kWh/km is consumed effectively by the wheels, thereby indicating energy interactions associated with their operation.³³ For a comparison, electric bikes achieve an energy efficiency of approximately 0.012 kWh/km, showing their significantly less energy consumption in comparison to conventional vehicles.³¹ These findings point to the benefit of electric two wheelers, with consequent lower overall Energy requirement.

One of the challenges that has been foreseen and is currently being anticipated is that of a bottleneck in lithium resources, i.e. a shortage of lithium in the market in which batteries are manufactured. This shortage has the potential to result in a delay of 2-3 years in the growth of the e-scooter sector by 2030.³⁴ Over exploitation of resource for the extraction of critical materials such as lithium and cobalt has been identified as a significant environmental concern, given its association with water pollution and habitat destruction.³⁵

3.3 Temporal improvements

To begin with, electric scooters feature high production-stage emissions with an estimated range between 87–95 g CO₂-equivalent per km in comparison to 43 g CO₂-equivalent per km for conventional fossil-fuel vehicles. This is predominantly a result of battery manufacturing, which is responsible for approximately 30-40% of the lifecycle emissions of electric two-wheelers. However, electric vehicles offer tremendous advantages throughout their lifespan. For example, the European average electricity mix leads to a decrease of 20–24% of total greenhouse gas emissions relative to petrol-fuelled cars and a decrease of 10–14% relative to diesel-fuelled cars during their 150,000-kilometer life. Electric bicycles, having a very modest energy consumption, emit only About 0.3 tonnes of greenhouse gases during use. The continual improvement in battery technology, as seen in the recent publications of the International Energy Agency, should further mitigate these environmental effects.²³ This improvement includes increased energy densities, more efficient recycling procedures, and a power supply from renewable energies that is progressively cleaner. Although electric vehicles are expected to retain greater non-greenhouse gas effects, including human toxicity associated with metal extraction, continued advances in sustainable production processes, minimization through design, and efficient energy management are projected to improve their environmental advantages relative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.³⁰³¹

3.4 Urban congestion and noise pollution

Electric two-wheelers have also been found to considerably enhance land use efficiency in cities. The reason being that they have much lower spatial requirements for parking and operating activity than motor vehicles. In fact, a single car parking space can be used to park 10–12 e-scooters or 6–8 e-bikes.³⁶ Micro-mobility is one of the solutions for decongesting cities while simultaneously opening valuable land to green space or other. Research indicated that a substitution of 10% of automobile trips using e-bikes in cities can lead to a reduction in parking demand by 15–20%.³⁷ Additionally, e-scooters and e-bikes occupy minimal road space, thereby contributing to a decrease in traffic congestion. For example, e-scooters can replace 20–30% of short car trips in cities, thereby resulting in a significant decrease in road occupancy.¹⁷ On the environmental front, the decreased demand for parking infrastructure translates into a decrease in the demand for asphalt and concrete, which both carry high carbon emissions. The development of one car parking space is likely to emit around 1.5 to 2 tons of CO2. On the other hand, the development of e-scooter parking facilities requires less construction activity, thus saving the carbon footprint.³⁰ The introduction of sharing systems can further facilitate the use of e-bikes and e-scooters and make them more flexible. Such systems are increasingly being implemented in cities and promote the interconnection of sustainable modes of transport, which further increases their attractiveness and use.³⁸³⁹

With the use of e-bikes and e-scooters within city limits unintentionally achieved a tremendous reduction in noise pollution relative to the conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Noise levels from electric two-wheelers run in a normal range of 50–60 decibels (dB), compared to 70–85 dB for petrol scooters and automobiles.¹⁷ In urban areas with high population density, a 10% substitution of automobile trips by e-scooters has been shown to decrease ambient noise levels by 3–5 dB.³⁰ This reduction is equivalent to a 30–50% lowering of perceived noise. Decreased levels of ambient noise have been shown to decrease stress and enhance mental well-being. Traffic noise pollution is associated with a 10–15% rise in sleep disorders for urban residents.³⁵ Quieter roads also encourage outdoor recreational activities, including walking and cycling, thereby enhancing sustainable urban mobility.

Case study: In Paris, the introduction of shared e-scooters led to a 4 dB reduction in noise levels in the city center during peak hours, as reported in the IEA Global EV Outlook 2023.²³

4 Social impact

In comparison to usual, unmotorized bicycles, electrical support makes biking more inclusive overall, because topographic and physical issues are overcome more easily. In regions with environmental resistances like strong winds and hills and mountains, e-bikes are more feasible for everyday use.²⁴⁰ Especially for physically weaker people, e-bikes are more attractive, when exhaustion or age-related wear is compensated by electrical support. This accounts for daily commutes and for longer trips. The fear of getting stranded in the middle of a bike trip due to exhaustion can be dampened by the support certainty of e-bikes.⁴¹ Able-bodied people increase their biking activities with e-bikes on average too, as the duration of a commute is an important parameter influencing the choice of means of transport.⁴²

The observed user’s behavior strongly depends on the local infrastructure and context of the scientific study. They have large regional variations.⁴

4.1 Walking

Shared e-scooters studies observe have a replacement effect on various travel methods. There is a minor reduction of shared and private bike usage and a bigger reduction of travelling by foot, as between 30 and 60 percent of e-scooter trips replace walking trips.⁴³

4.2 Public transport

E-bikes and e-scooters studies observe have two different effects on public transport. On one hand, e-bikes and e-scooters motivate to replace public transport commutes, as they offer a convenient alternative. They therefore slightly decrease the public transport utilization. In regions with particularly good public transport infrastructure, the share of replacement increases, as e-bikes and e-scooters offer door-to-door travel. On the other hand, e-bikes and e-scooters and public transport can complement each other, when the e-bike or e-scooter is taken onto public transport.²⁴³ As rented e-scooters can be left behind after usage, they are also used as the connection from home to the public transport network. They also encourage one-way trips where the way back is done by using public transport. E-scooter rental services often are more expensive than public transport, which is why they are rarely used by public transport users for daily commutes.⁴³

4.3 Car

There are benefits of taking an e-bike instead of the car in certain situations. Navigating through narrow streets and finding a parking spot in densely populated areas is generally easier, as the e-bike and e-scooters takes up less space and avoids parking fees.² E-scooters studies observe replace car trips by 25-40% in the US, as over 50% of the car trips in urban regions are below 6.4 km in length. In terms of on-demand car driving services like taxis, Uber or Lyft, a tiny share of their trips are replaced by e-scooters in the US. Many households which own a car but not an e-bike, use the car as their first travelling option. E.g. e-bike rental is rarely considered, available or affordable. The introduction of e-bikes into households leads to a reduction of unmotorized bike use, they are partly replaced with e-bikes. In households with both a car and an e-bike, the e-bike is used more frequently, leading to a reduction of car trips. Especially in places where public transport is poorly implemented, e-bikes and e-scooters replace more car trips, as public transport is a bad alternative. In the sense of safety of undecided residents is increased, they might be motivated to choose the e-bike instead of the car in the future.⁴⁰ When travelling longer distances or transporting heavy loads, the car is more practical and remains the preferred vehicle.²

4.4 Public health

The main parameter of public health in combination of an increased (e-)biking activity is a positive impact on the riders, as their cardiovascular systems are strengthened.¹⁷⁴⁰ This applies basically to people of all genders and ages, but it is especially beneficial for elderly people, as they can stay active more easily. In an environment where internal combustion engine car trips are replaced by electric vehicles, the negative impacts of air pollution are reduced. As the major amount is emitted by motor vehicles, the concentration of e.g. fine particles and harmful gases is reduced. On the other hand, an increased respiratory rate in comparison to car drivers lead to a bigger exposure of bikers to the increased air pollution in busy streets. Additionally, the safety issues listed below have a slight negative impact on the overall health.⁴⁰

4.5 Safety issues e-bikes

As the urban environment is introduced to e-bikes, new safety issues arise. With electrical support, the average biking speed is 2 to 9 km/h higher than without. Which means, that the speed difference to pedestrians is increased. In regions where the pathways of e-bikes and pedestrians meet, a source of conflict emerges.⁴² In regions where car travelling is replaced by e-bikes, the maximum travel speed decreases, which is beneficial in case of an accident. The reduced speed is accompanied by a mass reduction, if an e-bike is part of an accident instead of a car. This makes the impact less violent, as less total energy is involved.⁴⁰

4.6 Safety issues e-scooters

Because driving a shared e-scooter on the walkway instead on the street is popular and makes the drivers feel safe, a conflict zone emerges when the higher speed e-scooters meet the comparatively slow pedestrians. This leads to accidents and severe injuries, especially for the involved pedestrians.⁴³ In accidents with shared e-scooters in Hamburg, Germany, the riders are more often under the influence of alcohol than in bicycle accidents. Also, e-scooter accidents studies observe be more severe than bicycle accidents, as a larger share of the injuries are inflicted to the head or the face. Immediate treatment is required more often.⁴⁴

4.7 Solutions

These safety issues can be dampened by an additional, artificial noise emitted by the e-bike and e-scooter. This would make the environment more aware of the quickly approaching vehicle. But the most important step to increase safety are separated lanes for pedestrians and bikes respectively, as they get rid of a potential conflict zone.⁴²⁴³ Intoxication by alcohol should be avoided and the severity of an accident from the e-bike and e-scooter driver’s perspective is reduced a lot by wearing a helmet.⁴⁴ As the society and especially car drivers get used to faster bikes and an overall increase in biking, general awareness is arising. This can be concluded from the bike accident rate, which is not linearly proportional to the increase of bike users.¹⁷

5 Political and legal aspects

The growing popularity of e-scooters and e-bikes has prompted governments to implement policies that address safety, accessibility and integration into cities. This chapter examines current safety regulations and the political and legal aspects of governance, focusing on policy framework, the effectiveness of regulations and global perspectives on e-scooter usage.

5.1 Safety regulations from the user’s perspective

Globally, there are different regulations from a user’s perspective, with the goal to enable a safe journey for all road users. They vary, depending on the respective region.

As already mentioned, the safety risks increase with higher driving speeds, when driving on the pathway and when the driver is under the influence of alcohol. In most parts of Europe, motors of e-bikes regulations allow a maximum power of 250 W and a maximum assisted speed of 25 km/h. Asides from that, e-bikes authorities treat them like bicycles without a need for a license or insurance. In certain regions, there is a helmet obligation or recommendation.⁴⁵

The velocity of rental e-scooters limits to 20 or 25 km/h in a lot of European countries. In pedestrian areas, they either are allowed to be used at walking speeds or are completely prohibited. Two riders on one rental e-scooter and the influence of alcohol are forbidden in some European countries. A helmet authorities mandate in a few of the European countries and recommended in others.⁴⁶ In China, e-scooters are also limited to 25 km/h and have an additional 240 W motor limitation. Wearing a helmet authorities mandate in China. In some Chinese regions, especially in urban regions, e-scooters also require a license plate.⁴⁷ In the U.S., many states enforce helmet requirements for riders under 18 and impose speed limits of 15 to 35 mph (24 to 56 km/h) for electric scooters.⁴⁸⁴⁹ Additionally, zoning laws for charging stations serve to define public spaces and allow for the efficient distribution of essential infrastructure.⁴⁹ These regulations not only improve passenger and pedestrian safety, but also increase the overall efficiency of micromobility systems, thus offering a balanced viewpoint regarding innovation and public welfare.

5.2 Policy frameworks

Subsidy schemes have been one of the key reasons for accelerating the adoption of electric scooters and bikes, few such examples are China’s e-bike subsidies, the EU’s Cycle Logistics project and India’s FAME program. In China, subsidies have directly increased consumer demand for e-scooters, while indirectly reducing urban congestion and environmental pollution.⁵⁰ Similarly, the EU’s incentives for bicycle logistics have promoted environmentally friendly last-mile delivery solutions.⁵¹ Meanwhile, India’s FAME policy has encouraged market development and the expansion of complementary infrastructures, such as charging stations.⁵² These developments highlight the power of subsidies to promote good environmental and mobility outcomes.

5.3 Pros and cons of policies

Electric two-wheeler policies, particularly for e-scooters, offer energy-efficient alternatives to cars, reducing congestion and emissions within cities for short distances. This is in alignment with efforts to address traffic and air pollution problems. Furthermore, by addressing the “first-mile/last-mile” transportation challenge, these policies enhance the accessibility of public transportation and promote multimodal transportation systems. For instance, the dockless e-scooter sharing schemes that have been implemented in city centers, such as Brisbane, have been successful in reducing car reliance, with a total of 8.4 million trips being completed since 2018, leading to a decrease in emissions.¹² Furthermore, during crisis periods such as the global pandemic of 2020, e-scooters have also provided a socially distanced mode of transport, thereby easing pressure on overcrowded transit systems. When coupled with speed limits and dedicated infrastructure (e.g., bicycle lanes), such policies are congruent with climate objectives and enhance green urban transitions.⁵³

However, e-scooter use has also been associated with spatial conflict and safety issues, as their users compete with pedestrians and cyclists for sidewalk and road space, resulting in accidents and public dissatisfaction.⁵³ In cities such as Los Angeles and Paris, irresponsible behavior, including speeding and unlawful parking, has resulted in injuries and regulatory challenges. Initial ad hoc policy responses in these cities have further compounded these problems. Permissive legislation pertaining to helmet wearing, speed limits, and licensing requirements further complicates enforcement, resulting in cities grappling with a dilemma between promoting innovation and prioritising safety. In the absence of infrastructure rejuvenation and user education, the deployment of e-scooters is likely to exacerbate existing urban disparities and generate only negligible systemic change.¹²

It is imperative that a strategic emphasis on safety, equitable access, and complementarity to public transport is placed to ensure the potential of e-scooters as a sustainable mobility option is realised.

5.4 Global variations

Throughout many cities around the world, the regulatory framework approaches to electric scooters are highly variable. Some cities have chosen to prohibit e-scooters to address safety hazards and reducing urban traffic congestion. Cities experience issues such as the risk posed to pedestrian safety and the implementing speed limits have found that complete bans are an effective short-term solution.⁵⁴ These constraints are most common in instances where the rapid adoption of emerging technologies precedes the time taken for creation of comprehensive regulatory frameworks, thereby underscoring public safety and urban stability.

On the other hand, many cities have welcomed electric scooters as a means of replacement their existing public transportation networks.⁵⁵ Berlin and Singapore provide good case studies of among the cities that have adopted adaptive regulatory frameworks integrating micromobility into multimodal transportation systems with the objective to enhance the last-mile connectivity and promote sustainable urban mobility.⁵⁶ Through establishing designated charging areas, imposing standardized speed limits and helmet use requirements, these cities have successfully reduced safety while also leveraging e-scooters to decrease traffic congestion and lower carbon emissions.¹² This policy constitutes a holistic policy model that simultaneously deals with mobility needs and environmental concerns, providing an international benchmark for good governance in the micromobility sector.⁵⁷

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18
Nykvist, B. & Nilsson, M. Rapidly falling costs of battery packs for electric vehicles. Nature Climate Change 5, 329-332 (2015). https://doi.org:10.1038/nclimate2564
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20
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21
Dekker, P. ELECTRIFICATION OF ROAD TRANSPORT – AN ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC TWO-WHEELERS M.Sc. thesis, Utrecht University, (2013).
22
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23
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24
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25
Sulistyono, D. S., Yuniaristanto, Y., Sutopo, W. & Hisjam, M. Proposing Electric Motorcycle Adoption-Diffusion Model in Indonesia: A System Dynamics Approach. Jurnal Optimasi Sistem Industri (2021).
26
Korzilius, O., Borsboom, O., Hofman, T. & Salazar, M. in 2021 IEEE International Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC). 1677-1684.
27
Hafidza, L., Yuniaristanto, Y., Sutopo, W. & Hisjam, M. Evaluation of Driving Comparative Life Cycle Cost Assessment of Conventional and Electric Motorcycles in Indonesia: Monte Carlo Analysis. Jurnal Optimasi Sistem Industri 21, 55-65 (2022). https://doi.org:10.25077/josi.v21.n2.p55-65.2022
28
Cherry, C. & Cervero, R. Use characteristics and mode choice behavior of electric bike users in China. Transport Policy 14, 247-257 (2007). https://doi.org:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2007.02.005
29
Zuniga-Garcia, N., Tec, M., Scott, J. G. & Machemehl, R. B. Evaluation of e-scooters as transit last-mile solution. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 139, 103660 (2022). https://doi.org:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2022.103660
30
Hawkins, T., Singh, B., Majeau-Bettez, G. & Strømman, A. Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles. Journal of Industrial Ecology 17 (2013). https://doi.org:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x
31
Huang, Y., Jiang, L., Chen, H., Dave, K. & Parry, T. Comparative life cycle assessment of electric bikes for commuting in the UK. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 105, 103213 (2022). https://doi.org:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103213
32
Moreau, H. et al. Dockless E-Scooter: A Green Solution for Mobility? Comparative Case Study between Dockless E-Scooters, Displaced Transport, and Personal E-Scooters. Sustainability 12, 1803 (2020). https://doi.org:10.3390/su12051803
33
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38
Fishman, E., Washington, S. & Haworth, N. Bike share’s impact on car use: Evidence from the United States, Great Britain, and Australia. Transp. Res. Part Transp. Environ. 31, 13–20 (2014).
39
Jin, S. T. & Sui, D. Z. A comparative analysis of the spatial determinants of e-bike and e-scooter sharing link flows. J. Transp. Geogr. 119, 103959 (2024).
40
Götschi, T., Garrard, J. & Giles-Corti, B. Cycling as a Part of Daily Life: A Review of Health Perspectives. Transport Reviews 36, 45-71 (2016). https://doi.org:10.1080/01441647.2015.1057877
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43
Wang, K. et al. What travel modes do shared e-scooters displace? A review of recent research findings. Transport reviews 43, 5-31 (2023). https://doi.org:10.1080/01441647.2021.2015639
44
Kleinertz, H. et al. Accident Mechanisms and Injury Patterns in E-Scooter Users–A Retrospective Analysis and Comparison With Cyclists. Dtsch Arztebl Int 118, 117-121 (2021). https://doi.org:10.3238/arztebl.m2021.0019
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51
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55
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56
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