Authors: Joseph Howe, Ahmed Abouelazm, March, 2025
1 Description and History
The aviation industry accounted for 3.5% of world emissions in 20231. Even though this is not one of the main emitters in a modern society, however if society is to transition to net zero successfully, every industry needs to decarbonise heavily. The main current decarbonisation pathways for the aviation industry include sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), electric planes, hybrid planes and hydrogen planes. For this report only electric planes are considered in detail however, there are comparisons to the other decarbonisation pathways.
Electric planes have a simple philosophy of replacing the fossil fuel burning engines and fuel take in conventional planes with electric motors and batteries. However, due to the plane’s performance, such as its range, having a direct correlation with its overall weight, this simple conversion becomes challenging1. Due to the energy density of batteries being much lower than that of conventional aviation fuel, aviation fuel has roughly 43MJ/kg and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have roughly 1.6MJ/kg 2. For the same mass of the plane much more energy can be stored in a fossil fuel burning place than an electric plane resulting in a greater range. Due to this, there has been a slow uptake in electric planes and has mostly been limited to being produced by low volume startups. Demonstrated by the longest flight being 250km (unmanned) 3, which is roughly a quarter of the average flight distance in 20224. Additionally, the current offerings of electric planes are limited to a very few passengers for this type of flight, roughly 1-2 people including the pilot. Due to the main market for planes being for large scale national or international flights of 100+ people5, there has been truly little interest in current electric planes. Additionally, it would be required to have a large charging infrastructure for a large-scale adoption of planes which electric vehicles (EV) are currently facing. However, there is still interest within this technology as most of the technology has already been proven in similar application such as electric cars but the battery energy density needs to improve.
Another problem that electric planes also have in common with EVs, is the scarcity of materials required to make the batteries that go within the planes. Currently, most concepts and planes include lithium-ion batteries with hopeful plans to use solid state batteries in the future due to their higher energy density6. Current batteries all require minerals such as lithium, cobalt and nickel which have environmental concerns, which will be discussed later in the paper, and also have a limited supply, although there is a growing market for recycling batteries. These batteries are also scaled up versions of other Li-ion batteries since battery packs are made of many individual small cells. However, the motors in aircraft, even the smaller sized aircraft have a great power output and are designed to be operated near to the maximum rating, for example a Tesla model 3 has an electric motor of around 350 kW 7, where the Eviation Alice has an 850 kW motor8.
Additionally, this technology does not produce any direct emissions when traveling so there is a significant amount of decarbonisation. In comparison to hydrogen and SAF planes, this type does not face any fuel scarcity issues. Currently other decarbonisation routes include utilising hydrogen planes obtained as green hydrogen (generated from renewable energy), and SAF which is made through a chemical process with trapped carbon and green hydrogen. Green hydrogen, made through electrolysis of water with renewable energy, is currently a costly and scarce resource and there is already a large demand for green or other low carbon hydrogen forms in the transition to net zero and so the idea that planes could be electrified would elevate the burden on the other sectors requiring hydrogen. Additionally, this can be said for SAF, currently the SAF is very expensive costing roughly twice as much as standard fuel9, which is another reason for demanding electric planes as the fuel is relatively cheap. There is also the added benefit of increased torque and lower maintenance than conventional and other forms of low carbon aviation 8.
Currently all of the major aerospace companies are investing into planes with some form of electric powertrain, whether that is Boeing who is investing in Wisk Aero10 a self-flying taxi company, Rolls Royce who is investing in a hybrid electric propulsion system for regional aircraft 11 or United Airlines who is investing in an eVTOL aircraft12, which is a form of aircraft which can complete vertical take-off and landings similar to helicopters. However, the main innovation is coming from startup companies such as AutoFlight who currently hold the world record for the longest, unmanned, flight covering 250km using a VTOL aircraft3 or Heart Aerospace who are designing a hybrid electric plane which is claimed to be capable of completing 200km on all electric and 800km range in hybrid mode if the passengers are limited to 25 however, this is yet to be tested13. The direction of funding demonstrates where electric planes are currently being considered feasible, that being for very light aircraft covering a short distance, such as a VTOL for short flight applications or a small to medium sized aircraft with a hybrid system to cover longer flights. However, battery energy density is improving at a rapid rate, and it is predicted that batteries could have enough energy density to achieve a long-haul flight after 2050, although this might not impact the transition to net zero.14
History: the first crewed electric aircraft flew 9 minutes in 197316 and was powered by a nickel-cadmium battery. As the battery technology improved and together with the energy density, going from nickel-cadmium batteries (1970-1990s) to lithium-ion batteries (2000s-present) milestones became larger and larger over time 17. In 2009 the first solar powered aircraft completed a world flight18 and 5 years after in 2022 the first twin engine electric aircraft crossed the English Channel. In a similar time, Rolls-Royce also achieved 622km/h in an all-electric aircraft in 202119.
2 Economic Performance
2.1 Past and Current Performance
Currently the main components of an electric plane which deviate from conventional aircraft include a single or multiple electric motors coupled with a large battery pack. For this reason, the economic performance is tied closely with the advancements of these technologies. As discussed previously, decreasing weight of the aircraft increases the range and overall performance of the aircraft20. Due to the many advancements in battery technology, economies of scale have been achieved, and prices of both the electric motors and batteries have fallen21. However, battery technology has seen a much greater decrease in cost due to the similarity between other forms of lithium-ion batteries. Whereas the electric motors for the large planes are purpose built 22. For the shorter distance applications such as the VTOL applications the motors are similar to that of other EV’s and so this technology has been getting cheaper and will continue to get cheaper at a greater rate than purpose-built motors. Additionally, due to electric planes having a lack of commercial availability there has not been the same economies of scale achieved that is achieved when products have been mass produced. For that reason, electric planes are much more expensive than conventional air craft. For example, the Ven’s RV-1223 is which is a popular light aircraft that has been utilised since 2018 and has 75kW engine, 1028km range has a price of roughly $200,000 whereas the Pipistrel Velis and all electric 57.6kW airplane with a range of 200km is $200,00024. This demonstrates that electric planes at the same price point of conventional aircraft are not competitive which demonstrates why there has not been a massive uptake of electric planes.
An additional consideration is the fuel required to utilise the aircraft. With conventional aircraft the aviation fuel has increased from ~12% from 2021 to 202425. This trend will only increase as there is scarcity of oil and also pressure from governments to apply incentives to not burn high carbon fuels such as aviation fuel. Electricity also has seen an increase in electricity price especially due to the current Ukraine war. This resulted in a doubling in electricity prices in the EU from 2021 to 202226. This has a direct impact on the cost of the flights. However, as the world transitions to more renewable power there will be a marginal reduction in electricity prices resulting in a marginal reduction in cost of operation27. For the batteries in electric planes even though economies of scale will cause a decrease in batteries and motors, there will be in the near future resource scarcity in the materials required for these technologies resulting in an increase in the overall cost of the technology especially as more and more feedstocks come from recycling28.
Moreover, due electric motors and batteries having less maintenance required, similar to that of the comparison between EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles, there are less running costs, accounted for maintenance which is a big factor in the aviation industry.22 Thus, elevating this can have a great impact on the economic performance of the plane and the desirability to firms and pilots.
Another consideration for the economic viability is the charging network required if a large-scale adoption of electric planes is to occur. Similarly, to EVs there will be a large cost associated with implementing the charging infrastructure, and this must be considered when assessing the economic feasibility22 However, unlike EVs there are less places in which need to be fitted with charging stations. Due to EVs requiring charging stations at people’s houses and sparsely populated, trouble has arisen when distributing the stations was taking place. However, with electric planes, there are less locations which need to be installed, which shall be easier to group the charging stations together which shall result in lower overall costs. However, there is also a number of isolated airports which still have the same problem, which need to be considered.
2.2 Future performance
Looking to the future there is an anticipation of solid stat batteries becoming main stream technology, and there will be mass adoption of the technology. Solid state batteries could increase the energy density of batteries by a factor of 2 when comparing to lithium-ion batteries. This would result in a massive improvement in the performance of electric aircraft22. Although there is a different correlation between weight and the overall range and so it is hard to predict the resulting reducing in operating cost and also increase in range it is certain that this will be advantageous in both aspects and potentially making the technology physically and financially viable for longer flights.
2.3 Future outlooks on spending
Even though this technology is far from being a viable option for wide spread use in the aviation industry venture capitalist are ramping up funding to electric start up as mentioned before. This hints that there is still financial interest within the sector and there is potential still left.
2.4 Comparison to other technologies
As mentioned before electric aircraft is competing against SAF and hydrogen aircraft. Considering purely a financial outlook on the technology electric planes is far ahead of the competitors. Current SAF is produced at roughly 2x the cost of current conventional jet fuel prices. This means without a massive reducing in cost SAF will not be a viable option. There is an element of economies of scale which can be considered for SAF however, it depends on the way it is produced. Currently, there is a large push to utilise captured carbon mixed with green hydrogen in a Fischer Tropsch (FT) process to create SAF. This has a very low carbon footprint however, the cost of capturing carbon and utilising it in an energy dense process such as a FT process makes the reduction in costs become somewhat challenging. Additionally, hydrogen powered planes could promise a viable option financially and hydrogen has the energy density required to perform similar to current aviation fuel offerings even considering there is still a requirement for a small battery. However, this technology relies heavily on the cost of hydrogen to fall and the abundance of hydrogen to increase drastically. Currently, the cost of hydrogen per kilo is 5$-7$ where there is prediction of hydrogen being as low as 2$ which gives the scale of cost reduction30. However, hydrogen is required in many other industries in the transition to net zero and it is considered by many economists to not rely on one resource to decarbonise everything and have diversity in resources.
3 Ecological Performance
Although electric planes are seen as a low carbon alternative compared to conventional planes there are still emissions and other ecological problems associated with the technology. Due to the materials required to produce the battery and the motor there are concerns over the scarcity of these materials as more and more batteries are produced not just for electric planes but also for other decarbonisation technologies such as EV’s and intermittent storage for renewable energy 28. Moreover, although electric planes have low emissions when in operation the well to tank emissions is still high and the emission of producing an electric vehicle is greater than the emissions of producing the conventional vehicle counterpart. This is true for electric cars but will also follow suit for electric planes due to sharing similarities 30. Similarly to electric cars, electric planes will have less emissions compared to the conventional aircraft, the more the planes are used due to the current electrical grid having a lower emissions density than when jet fuel is burnt. This will also be improved with the transition to net zero, as the electrical grid decarbonises then the emissions density of the fuel being utilised will reduce drastically and could be reduced to nearly no emissions.
Additionally, there are worries about ethnical concerns for the extraction of the materials required for the batteries. Due to most lithium-ion batteries containing materials such as cobalt and most of the cobalt that is mined comes from the Democratic Republic of Congo, where there are severe concerns for the ethicality of how the extraction process is performed. Recent statics hint at the fact there is 70% of all cobalt is mined with the use of child labour or exploitation of workers in dangerous conditions31. This raises human rights concerns, and it is part of the reason for some EV manufactures such as Tesla to transition to batteries with less cobalt content32.
Battery disposal/recycling
As mentioned prior, there is an increasing demand for recycling of the batteries in modern applications. For instance, Lead-acid batteries have seen a massive increase in the capacity of recycle. However, lithium-ion batteries have challenges with the recycling process. As there exist various battery technologies, it is very hard to produce recycling process that cover all technologies and then later, dividing them for each type individually, as this shall reduce the processing of the batteries and makes the overall process more costly. Additionally, batteries have complex structures and are not inherently assembled to be dissembled and thus this is another challenge that needs to be overcome. There is also the financial burden of having recycled materials rather than mined materials. Currently, it is much more expensive to utilise recycled feedstocks rather than mined feedstocks which makes the overall technology much more expensive33.
Moving to the aircraft bodies, in which the majority of the components are shared between the electric planes and the conventional ones. The manufacturing process used to create aircrafts does have several negative ecological impacts, and this is due to the fact that the aircraft construction mainly relies on materials like aluminium, titanium, and composite materials (as carbon fibre). Firstly, in the extraction stage of these raw materials, it shall involve mining which will face same issues as discussed earlier of the workers’ exploitation, as well as habitat destruction in some regions. The processing stage comes next, which is quite energy-intensive, so if the energy used is originated from non-renewable sources, then this will certainly add on negative ecological impacts of this stage. However, policies should be implemented to enforce, or at least encourage, the use of renewable energy sources in this stage, so that the overall impact could be decreased significantly. Moreover, during the manufacturing process, significant amount of waste is generated, which is mainly scrap metal, so laws must be enforced that waste management plans are to be developed to ensure proper disposal or recycling of the waste materials to further reduce the negative impacts of this stage. Several research efforts are currently finalised for the recycling of carbon fibre, which was previously difficult to perform, however many solutions have been found to be solid, which will definitely boost its production even further and lower the carbon footprint of its manufacturing process. Furthermore, a minor component that may contribute slightly to negative ecological is the presence of chemicals in the manufacturing process, and these chemicals if not managed correctly, can cause water and air pollution, therefore this must be planned in advance thoroughly to avoid any leaks into a water source, as rivers, which occasionally happens at some factories.
4 Social Impact
The successful commercialization of electric aircraft relies significantly on public acceptance, a factor often underestimated in technological advancements. Gaining societal trust and addressing potential concerns are paramount for the widespread adoption of this technology. This chapter will discuss the social parameters of electric planes, examining its evolving acceptance, potential positive societal contributions, as well as the potential negative impacts.
As of the current technologies, it appears that fully electric planes would be utilized for short-haul flights (approx. 200 km), while hybrid-electric aircraft for medium/long-haul flights. Therefore, the general public would be needed to be asked currently on their acceptance of hybrid electric as a first step for the adoption of fully electric planes later. In a survey run by Bauhaus Luftfahrt in Germany, key results show that 74% of the participants are open to travel by hybrid-electric planes 34. People who showed refusal are mostly concerned with safety issues followed by disbelief in the regulatory authorities. As proven from the survey, passengers would actually be accepting more to take hybrid-electric planes rather than conventional ones, when informed further about the safety measures and no other areas such as the benefits in terms of reduction for pollution.
Public acceptance of electric aircraft has demonstrably increased over time. Early scepticism, largely rooted in concerns about technological immaturity, has diminished as advancements have become more transparent 35. This pattern mirrors the trajectory of other emerging technologies, such as autonomous vehicles. Initially, driverless trains and similar systems faced significant public rejection regarding safety. However, as public understanding of these technologies increased through higher level of product knowledge and demonstrable reliability, acceptance grew, facilitating wider adoption. This suggests that public confidence in electric aviation will similarly strengthen as the technology matures and its benefits become more widely understood. Specifically, increasing awareness of climate change and the growing urgency to decarbonize the aviation sector have to be set clear to underline the pollution effects of this sector.
The potential positive social impacts of electric aircraft are numerous, and this should support its widespread adoption. Firstly, the establishment of a robust electric aviation industry is poised to generate substantial job creation across the whole lifecycle of the planes starting from research phase going until the operation and maintenance phase. This surge of employment opportunities can stimulate regional economies and contribute to workforce diversification. Secondly, this transition to electric batteries from normal aircraft engines promises significant health benefits36. This is mainly due to the reduction in CO2, CO and NOx emissions, will lead to improved air quality, particularly around airports. This will surely reflect on potential decrease in respiratory illnesses and associated mortality rates. Especially for airport apron workers, they tend to suffer higher from cancer, heart disease, mental illness, and respiratory symptoms due to the constant exposure to the ultrafine particles37. So, by increasing the adoption of electric planes, the spread of ultrafine particles will tend to fall near airports, and as a result, more people would be open to work at airports, which is now is an emerging problem as airports struggle to find labour. Furthermore, the noise reduction associated with electric motors offers a tremendous prospect for mitigating noise pollution around airports, enhancing the quality of life for surrounding communities. Early studies show a decrease of 3 dB during take-off for electric aircraft in comparison to jet engines; one can argue that this is not an extremely high difference, but it can be a start for further research to dig in more noise mitigation studies38.
Conversely, the deployment of electric aircraft is not without potential negative social impacts. Like electric cars, the issue of decommissioning is still highly effective, as disposal issues of batteries will start to appear at the end of their lifespans, so research efforts have to be made before reaching that phase to avoid deeper problems. In addition, electric planes in comparison to conventional ones, have roughly 30% longer flight times, which may pose some problems for passengers39 . Finally, any potential safety concerns, must be addressed with thorough and open communication, building public trust and ensuring a smooth transition to this new technology to help reach carbon-neutrality.
5 Political and Legal Aspects
The early stage of electric aviation technology development is showed in the relatively limited establishment of concrete policy frameworks across global jurisdictions. While the technology holds significant promise for decarbonizing air travel as discussed earlier across several parameters, but the absence of firm regulatory structures poses both challenges and opportunities for its future path. Several top companies within the sector are now working to get their machinery certified.
However, the projected timelines for the commercialization of electric aircraft demonstrate a consistent trend of delays which is mainly a delay in obtaining certification 29. For instance, Eviation, a US-based industry leader, had an initial projection of achieving type certification and commencing operations by 2022, however as of today it has been pushed and now anticipated in 2027. Similarly, Dovetail, the Australian competitor, plan to convert conventional aircraft to electric propulsion anticipates test flights no earlier than this year. Furthermore, Heart Aerospace, Swedish-based aviation firm, has securing pre-orders from major airlines, but it does not foresee certifying its ES-30 aircraft before 2028. These extended timelines highlight the complex legal procedures present in bringing electric aviation to market.
To summarize this point, startup founders frequently underestimate the extensive time and resources necessary for aircraft certification, especially talking about initiatives for electric planes. This process typically involves securing four distinct certifications: Type Certificate, Airworthiness Certificate, Design Organization Approval, and Production Organization Approval29. The Type Certificate, considered the most critical milestone, traditionally requires up to 9 years for conventional aircraft, according to EASA and FAA guidelines. However, recognizing the urgency for developing electric aircraft to enable reaching the Net Zero targets, policymakers have indicated a potential for expedited certification procedures for electric aircraft.
Facilitating certification requirements can be done through several ways. Primarily, the establishment of global standards is paramount to streamline the certification process and ensure interoperability across international airspace, and that is the core of the aviation industry. This requires collaborative efforts among regulatory bodies in different countries to develop uniform technical specifications and safety protocols. Furthermore, incentivizing sustainable battery production and the development of supporting infrastructure, such as charging stations at airports, is crucial for the long-term viability and widespread adoption of electric aviation. These incentives can take the form of tax credits, subsidies, or public-private partnerships, taking examples from other clean energy policies.
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