Authors: Pradipta Pancham Boruah, Ricardo Andrés Rodríguez Sandoval, March, 2025 

1      Description and History

Are we prepared to recreate the sun’s power? And is this the solution to end the use of fossil fuels?Nowadays, countries around the world are trying to copy the Sun’s energy production through what is called Fusion Power, and the main researchers for this are the European Union, USA, Rusia and Japan; although the projects may be malicious due to the intense energy that is being sought, it may also be a solution to climate change ¹.How does this technology emerge? Energy has been indispensable throughout human history; it can be said that the transitions of energy are determined in three main phases. The first phase dates back approximately 300,000 years ago, during prehistory, with the introduction of fire. At this stage, its use was limited to cooking, warmth survival and defense against animals. Several millennia later the second era began as human needs evolved, uses and necessities changed. This era saw the development of tools like windmills and wheels, which significantly increased efficiency and power. The third energy transition started with industrialization in the 17th century, and it has been active until our days. During this period the use of fossil fuels became the primary energy source to mainly produce electricity or boost transport. However, its exploitation has reached its limits today contributing to pollution and therefore climate change, that is why the search for renewable energies such as wind, photovoltaic, thermal, wave and so on; has intensified as a sustainable alternative to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. However, the intermittency of energy has been a problem ever since².

Guidelines for the path to fusion power started in 1666, Isaac Newton discovered the color spectrum through the “Prism Experiment” this experiment led to the later revelation of the “Black lines” in the solar spectrum or “Fraunhofer Lines” named after Joseph von Fraunhofer (1814), they represent the absorption of wavelengths of light by elements in the Sun’s atmosphere. The scientist observed what elements the sun generates: 75% , 24%  and 1% heavier elements (lithium, beryllium and boron).

The great predecessor of fusion is fission or what is commonly known as “nuclear energy”. With the contributions of Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Ernest Rutherford exploring radioactivity and Albert Einstein famous equation , in 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission, and Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch explained how splitting an atomic nucleus releases energy. This led to the development of nuclear power for two main purposes: nuclear weapons and energy production. Although its main purpose was not to solve intermittency and pollution, but rather to provide a solution to technological development, this discovery caught the attention of scientists specifically interested in energy production³. However, recent events have made people abhor nuclear power, for example: Explosion at Chernobyl (1986), and Fukushima nuclear plant meltdown (2011); these events leaded to Green movements turned against nuclear energy⁴.

Fusion has its origins as mentioned before, by the study of understand how does the sun work. Some of the milestones that lead to fusion-energy developments are:

• 1920: British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington proposed that stars derive their energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
• 1932: Discovery of deuterium (a stable isotope of hydrogen) by H.C. Urey. 
• 1934: Observations of nuclear reactions from colliding with deuterons (a deuterium nucleus) by E. Rutherford.
• 1958: The Soviet Union’s T-1 Tokamak became operational, introducing a magnetic confinement device that would influence future fusion research globally⁵.
• 1983: The Joint European Torus (JET) commenced operations in the UK, becoming Europe’s largest fusion device and achieving significant fusion power outputs.
• 2007: Construction began on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in France, a multinational project aiming to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale energy source⁶.

But how does nuclear fusion work? The previously mentioned nuclear power works by breaking up the heaviest nuclei^* into lighter ones that release energy. But combining the lightest into heavier and releasing energy is called fusion energy⁷. 

In the Sun, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing big amounts of energy. This occurs under extreme heat and pressure, transforming hydrogen gas into plasma, a state where electrons separate from atomic nuclei. Arthur Eddington, was the one that deduced that four hydrogen atoms could combine to form one helium atom, releasing energy. This process is represented by the following figure⁸:

The process happens in three steps: first, two hydrogen nuclei collide, and one turns into a neutron, forming deuterium while releasing a positron and a neutrino. Then, deuterium fuses with another proton, creating helium-3 and emitting gamma rays. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide and fuse, forming helium-4 and releasing two protons. Throughout this process, huge amounts of energy are released as heat and light (reason why stars shine). High temperatures and pressure are crucial because they force the nuclei close enough to overcome their natural repulsion and fuse. This process not only powers stars but also helps form heavier elements over time.

But, thanks to Mark Oliphant (1934), a most efficient fusion reaction used in experimental fusion reactors was discovered shown in the following figure:

This is the process where the deuterium and tritium smash together to release a huge amount of energy having as a result a Neutron and helium-4, as in the previous process.

2      Economic Performance

The world fossil fuels reserves have already reached their peak and are becoming increasingly scarce, and according to McKelvey Diagram (1967), natural resources are classified based on their availability and economic feasibility. Some resources are economically viable, meaning they can be profitably extracted and are considered reserves. Others are sub-economic, meaning they exist but are too expensive to extract with current technology. As fossil fuel extraction becomes more difficult and expensive, reserves decrease, affecting global supply and prices⁹. 

However, the necessity for fossil fuels remains, according to the Statistical Review of World Energy of the Energy Institute (2024), global primary energy consumption fossil fuels continue dominating with 81% approximately, being the remaining 19% renewable and clean energy (Figure 3). 

As it is shown, fossil fuels still dominated according to the study made in 2023. The energy goes up to 81.5% of total consumption, though their share declined slightly from 81.9% in 2022, this demonstrates a slow transition to alternative energy. 

Coal consumption got a record of 164 EJ, growing by 1.6% compared to the previous year, with China alone consuming 56% of the world’s coal supply. India also saw an increase in coal use, surpassing the combined consumption of North America and Europe, this marks the continued use of cheap and highly polluting energy source in developing economies. 

Meanwhile, natural gas demand remained stable, with a 7% drop in Europe. However, in China and India there was a 7% increase. 

Oil consumption achieved over 100 million barrels per day for the first time in history, largely driven by China’s economic and United States remained the world’s largest producer of both oil and natural gas, boosting production by 8%, while Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries and additional oil-producing nations (OPEC+) slightly reduced its production. Fossil fuels are still essential for global energy, but climate policies, new technology, and investments in cleaner energy are slowly changing the market¹⁰.

While their use of conventional fuels is slightly decreasing, most countries still prioritize cost and availability over sustainability. It is believed that new technologies like fusion energy can fulfill both financial and sustainability. Fusion energy can provide zero greenhouse gases and abundance; deuterium can be found in the ocean, meanwhile the tritium cannot be found in a natural way, but with lithium’s help can be produced, component that is also abundant on Earth. However, this technology has many challenges when it comes to financial support: 

• Reactors: Build a fusion reactor like International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) can cost billions of dollars as initial budged; still its exact budget remains unknown because it has not been released for commercialization, and it stays as research. For example, an examination made by the University of York, Oxford University and Durham University; projected that the Demonstration Power Plant by the European Union (EU DEMO) can have a Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of approximately $121 per megawatt-hour (MWh) just for fusion reactor design. However, it is designed to join the gap between experimental fusion research and commercial electricity generation with an estimated first electricity generation until 2050¹¹.
•  Development: Scientifics have been working on the research phase for decades, but cuts have been made because of the it has no revenue; therefore, investors hesitate due returns of investment (ROI) that can take years or decades.
• Maintenance: Another variable that remains unknown is the maintenance of a fusion reactor; it requires high-tech materials that can withstand extreme heat and radiation¹².

Most fusion research today focuses on ITER, an international project aimed at testing if a doughnut-shaped device called Tokamak¹³ can produce nuclear fusion. The Tokamak uses strong magnetic fields to contain super-heated plasma and aims to generate as much energy as it consumes. The goal is to achieve a plasma energy balance, where the fusion reaction produces enough energy to sustain itself. ITER is expected to begin full operations by 2035, with a cost of about $22 billion.

3      Ecological Performance

If fusion energy works, it could manage many energy challenges as the ones mentioned above, zero greenhouse gases due to the lack of combustion and uses relatively abundant materials for fuel in small amounts (1 ton of fusion fuels ≈ 7 million tons of oil). Additionally, unlike nuclear energy, fusion does not create radioactive waste, and it conserves the solutions to intermittences to produce energy in relation to the actual renewable energies. 

To produce fusion energy, it is necessary to reach extremely high temperatures. The Sun naturally achieves this process at around 15 million Kelvin, with a pressure 100 billion times that of Earth’s atmosphere at sea level. On Earth, recreating these conditions is a major challenge because reaching the required temperatures and pressures is difficult, and controlling the plasma formed at such high temperatures adds more complexity. Right now, there are two methods in research that can achieve this:

• Magnetic confinement: take advantage of magnetic fields to control the charged particles. It keeps the material for a long period of time. This process does not release CO₂ or other pollutants, materials used can become slightly radioactive, but the waste is short-lived and there is no risk of meltdown. However, it requires massive infrastructure, which affects ecosystems, running the system requires significant electricity, which may still rely on fossil fuels and excess heat from cooling systems can impact local water sources and ecosystems
• Inertial confinement: take advantage of very high pressures and temperatures to keep the particles within, but it keeps them for a short period of time. Although deuterium and tritium are required in tiny amounts, in this process the lasers used require vast amounts of power, often exceeding the energy output of the fusion reaction itself which made this system inefficient. 

 To better understand the environmental footprint of fusion energy production it is necessary to analyze the first studies of the environmental impact of fusion power:

• In 1975 at the Culham Laboratory, one of the first studies identified tritium and activated construction materials as the main environmental concerns. Tritium, used as fuel, is put back within the reactor, while reactor materials become radioactive due to neutron exposure.
• In 1985 a second study at Culham Laboratory confirmed that fusion reactors had lower risks compared to fission reactors, due to the absence of actinides (long-lived radioactive elements). Still, it is noted that there is no demonstrated proof of this in real applications.
• In 1986 there was a European Communities Report  that reviewed both the environmental and economic aspects of nuclear fusion. It recognized fusion’s safety and environmental benefits but needed more quantify research¹⁴. 
• In 2020, a study from Europe¹⁵. 
• Today, the main goal of fusion research in Europe is to create conditions where deuterium and tritium (D-T) fusion can achieve net energy gain.

4      Social Impact

The social acceptance of nuclear fusion is just as crucial as achieving low costs and net energy production in addressing climate change and energy poverty. A study titled “The Social Acceptance of Fusion: Critically Examining Public Perceptions of Uranium-Based Fuel Storage for Nuclear Fusion in Europe” investigates how the proposed use of depleted uranium (DU) as a tritium fuel storage medium affects public attitudes toward nuclear fusion. 

The study threw light upon the fact that by distinguishing nuclear fusion from nuclear fission, public perception could be positively influenced. The potential use of DU in fusion reactors caused a significant decline in positive attitudes. This downturn was linked to initial negative cognitive and emotional reactions to DU, indicating a stigmatizing effect associated with its use.  However, with enough factual information being provided about the nature and purpose of DU within fusion reactors, a partial recovery in attitudes was observed. This underscored the importance of transparent and informative communication in mitigating public concerns¹⁶.

The findings from this study highlights the critical role of public engagement and education in the development and deployment of nuclear fusion technologies. Addressing public concerns through clear and factual information can alleviate negative perceptions, particularly when introducing materials like DU that may carry preconceived stigmas. The study also emphasizes the need for early and participatory involvement of the public in the development phase of emerging technologies. Engaging the public can help understand the nature of their attitudes, which is crucial for fostering social acceptance and ensuring the successful integration of fusion energy into future energy systems. These insights are vital for policymakers and scientists aiming to promote public acceptance of nuclear fusion as a viable and safe energy source¹⁶. 

A study done by Stephanie Diem, Laila El-Guebaly, and Aditi Verma emphasizes that fusion energy holds the promise of providing virtually limitless, carbon-free energy. Recent advancements, such as the Joint European Torus (JET) experiment significantly surpassing previous energy production records and the National Ignition Facility (NIF) achieving ignition in 2022, have propelled fusion energy closer to practical realization. Technological innovations, including high-temperature superconducting magnets enabling more compact fusion power plants, have shifted the focus from fundamental research to addressing technical challenges essential for sustainable energy harnessing. This shift is further evidenced by the emergence of fusion-focused startups and substantial private investments, totalling approximately $6 billion globally, with over $4 billion invested since 2020¹⁷.

In 2022, the U.S. White House organized a summit to develop a bold decadal vision for commercial fusion energy, leading to the U.S. Department of Energy’s launch of a Milestone-Based Fusion Development Program aimed at designing fusion pilot plants capable of electricity generation. Subsequently, in November 2023, an international engagement plan was announced at COP28 to advance fusion commercialization, focusing on research and development, building fusion supply chains, and establishing regulation and safety standards to make fusion energy technologies globally accessible. These initiatives signal a global mobilization toward an ambitious timeline for fusion energy development, bringing commercial fusion energy within reach, a prospect previously considered unattainable by researchers, practitioners, and policymakers¹⁷. 

Despite technological progress, three key research priorities are essential for the successful commercialization of fusion energy. First, a comprehensive evaluation of environmental impacts throughout the entire lifecycle of fusion technologies is necessary to ensure sustainable development. Second, the establishment of robust risk and safety assessment frameworks is crucial for identifying and mitigating potential hazards associated with fusion power plants. Finally, fostering a community-based, socially engaged approach by integrating public input into the design and development process is vital for addressing concerns, building trust, and ensuring broader societal acceptance of fusion energy. Addressing these priorities is imperative to ensure that fusion energy development aligns with societal and environmental considerations, thereby facilitating broader acceptance and integration. ¹⁷.

Early and participatory public involvement in the fusion development cycle is essential. Engaging communities in evidence-based discussions about fusion technology fosters trust between the public and developers, allowing for informed consent and addressing concerns proactively. This approach not only minimizes deployment delays but also prevents potential cost escalations for developers. By integrating community perspectives early in the design process, fusion energy projects can be better tailored to meet societal needs and expectations, thereby enhancing their chances of successful implementation.

In conclusion, achieving social acceptance is crucial for the successful implementation of fusion energy technologies. Alongside technological advancements and economic feasibility, gaining public trust and approval is essential to address climate change and energy poverty effectively. Increasing social acceptance involves the nuclear fusion industry being open and transparent with the public and regulators about the risks and benefits associated with fusion technology. Conducting independent health and safety reviews can further build public trust and demonstrate a commitment to addressing potential concerns.   

By involving local communities and stakeholders throughout the development and deployment of fusion projects, the industry can ensure that diverse perspectives are considered, leading to more socially acceptable outcomes. This collaborative approach can help mitigate opposition and cultivate a sense of shared responsibility in the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions. Moreover, addressing environmental and safety concerns is vital for securing social acceptance. Implementing robust safety measures and minimizing environmental impacts can alleviate public apprehensions and demonstrate the industry’s dedication to responsible development. This proactive stance not only safeguards the environment but also reinforces public confidence in fusion energy as a viable and safe alternative to traditional energy sources¹⁸.

For fusion energy to effectively contribute to combating climate change and alleviating energy poverty, the industry must prioritize social acceptance alongside technological and economic considerations. By fostering transparency, engaging with stakeholders, and addressing environmental and safety issues, the fusion sector can build public trust and facilitate the widespread adoption of this promising energy source.

5      Political and Legal Aspects

The advancement of nuclear fusion represents a significant milestone in energy research; however, substantial challenges remain before its widespread implementation can be realized. The development of fusion energy has long been met with scepticism due to the extensive financial investments required. Nevertheless, with growing concerns over climate change and the need for sustainable energy alternatives, nuclear fusion continues to attract attention as a potential low-carbon energy source. The International Energy Agency (IEA), in its 2019 report Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System, emphasizes that overcoming political and public apprehensions surrounding nuclear energy is critical for fusion to gain traction as a viable energy solution. The report further warns that without continued investment in nuclear infrastructure, advanced economies could experience a drastic two-thirds decline in nuclear energy capacity by 2040. This shortfall would necessitate greater reliance on fossil fuels, particularly natural gas and coal, thereby exacerbating carbon emissions. In fact, the IEA projects that failing to support nuclear energy growth could result in an additional 4 billion tons of CO₂ emissions by 2040 while requiring an estimated $340 billion in investment to compensate for the loss of nuclear-generated electricity¹⁹. 

Despite these projections, policymakers remain hesitant to allocate large sums toward fusion research, particularly in the absence of clear, short-term results. Even with substantial financial backing, nuclear fusion is unlikely to achieve commercial viability in the immediate future. However, progress is accelerating, with experts offering more optimistic timelines than previously anticipated. The potential realization of fusion energy has profound implications for global energy markets, particularly for oil-dependent nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Venezuela, Russia, Nigeria, and China. A shift toward fusion-based energy could drastically reduce the demand for oil, destabilizing the economies of these resource-rich nations and significantly diminishing their influence on the global stage. Saudi Arabia, in particular, faces severe economic risks should its oil revenues decline substantially¹⁹. 

Furthermore, the reduced economic and political power of these oil-producing states could impact regional stability, potentially curbing aggressive geopolitical manoeuvres. The widespread availability of inexpensive and virtually limitless energy from nuclear fusion has the potential to reshape global economic structures and redefine international power dynamics. If current advancements continue at their present pace, the realization of fusion energy may occur within the lifetime of today’s generations, ushering in a new era of energy abundance and sustainability.

The changing political economy of fusion is also characterized by the emergence of public-private partnerships²⁰. These collaborations aim to accelerate the commercialization of fusion energy by leveraging private sector innovation and investment alongside public funding. The article highlights that such partnerships are crucial for overcoming the substantial technical and financial challenges inherent in developing fusion as a viable energy source. International projects, such as the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)²⁰, play an important role in shaping the fusion research agenda. These large-scale collaborations exemplify the collective effort required to tackle the complexities of fusion energy, inducing a sense of shared responsibility among participating nations. 

However, for fusion energy to be successfully integrated into the global energy landscape, it must be regulated in a manner that is both effective and proportionate to its specific risks and benefits. One of the foremost challenges in this regard is shifting the perception within the fusion industry regarding licensing regulations. There is a widespread concern that licensing for fusion power will mirror the stringent regulatory framework applied to nuclear fission, characterized by prolonged approval processes and high costs. This misconception has the potential to hinder progress and discourage investment. However, the development of a licensing regime is essential for ensuring public trust and the responsible advancement of the technology. Distinguishing fusion regulation from that of fission through clear communication will be crucial in fostering industry-wide acceptance of a structured but balanced regulatory framework. Such a system will provide assurance that fusion technology is being developed and deployed with appropriate oversight, without unnecessarily impeding its progress.

Another significant challenge involves dismissing concerns that regulation could suppress innovation or make it more difficult to secure financial backing. Contrary to this belief, an appropriately scaled licensing framework that aligns with the actual hazards associated with fusion technology will serve to integrate safety and security considerations into the early stages of the design process. Without dedicated fusion-specific guidelines, there is a risk that existing fission regulations will be inappropriately applied by default, creating unnecessary regulatory burdens. Addressing this issue requires immediate action from global organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)²¹, in collaboration with industry stakeholders and regulatory bodies, to establish a comprehensive suite of high-level safety and security standards. Initially, the focus should be on setting design standards, followed by the development of guidelines for the construction, commissioning, operation, and eventual decommissioning of fusion power plants. Establishing these tailored regulatory frameworks will be instrumental in providing a clear and structured pathway for the safe and efficient deployment of fusion power as a viable energy source.

Despite its potential, the widespread deployment of fusion energy depends on international collaboration and the development of a robust legal framework. Current international and national regulatory instruments contain gaps that must be addressed to ensure the safe and effective implementation of fusion technologies. Given the complexities involved, legal regulations governing fusion energy have become a crucial topic of discussion in recent years.

Safety considerations for fusion power plants differ fundamentally from those of fission reactors, as fusion reactions do not rely on a self-sustaining chain reaction and can be halted instantly if operating conditions change. Despite these differences, many regulatory frameworks for nuclear energy still default to fission-based safety standards. Applying a risk-informed, proportionate approach is essential to avoid overregulation while ensuring the safety of fusion installations. Adapting existing safety guidelines, such as those provided by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), to accommodate the unique characteristics of fusion energy is critical for its advancement²².

In addition to safety regulations, concerns regarding nuclear security and proliferation risks must be addressed. Certain elements used in the fusion process, such as tritium, require strict oversight due to their potential misuse. Existing international treaties, including the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)²², primarily regulate fission-related activities and do not explicitly cover fusion technologies. As a result, amendments or additional protocols are necessary to integrate fusion into the global non-proliferation framework. Similarly, trade regulations governing the import and export of fusion-related materials lack a standardized classification system, making it difficult to ensure proper oversight. Establishing a unified registry for fusion technologies and materials would facilitate regulatory compliance while supporting the safe and efficient development of fusion power.

Another critical challenge is the legal treatment of liability in the event of a fusion-related incident. Existing nuclear liability frameworks, such as the Paris and Vienna Conventions²², were designed to address the risks associated with fission power plants and nuclear fuel cycles. However, fusion facilities do not fall under the conventional definition of a ‘nuclear installation’, nor do they involve ‘nuclear materials’ as defined in these treaties. Consequently, fusion liability is currently governed only by national laws, creating inconsistencies in legal responsibility across different jurisdictions. To establish a fair and effective liability regime for fusion, new legislative measures should be introduced to clarify compensation mechanisms and define responsible parties in case of accidents. Developing a specialized regulatory framework tailored to fusion energy will be crucial for facilitating its commercialization while ensuring public trust and legal certainty. By addressing these legal challenges, the fusion industry can advance toward large-scale implementation, contributing to a sustainable and secure global energy future.

Governmental support and strategic initiatives play a pivotal role in the advancement of fusion research and potential commercialization. The United States has historically been a leader in fusion research, with significant investments in both magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) and inertial confinement fusion (ICF). Federal agencies, such as the Department of Energy (DOE), have funded major projects like the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) and the National Ignition Facility (NIF). Despite budgetary fluctuations, the U.S. continues to support fusion research, emphasizing public-private partnerships to accelerate technological breakthroughs²³.

Europe’s approach to fusion energy is characterized by extensive collaboration among member states, exemplified by the Joint European Torus (JET) project and active participation in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) initiative. The European Union’s commitment is further demonstrated through substantial funding and coordinated research efforts, aiming to position Europe at the forefront of fusion technology development²³.

Asian nations, notably Japan, China, and South Korea, have emerged as key players in fusion research. Japan’s JT-60 program and involvement in ITER highlight its dedication to fusion energy. China’s rapid progress includes the development of the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST), reflecting its strategic focus on achieving energy security and technological leadership. South Korea’s contributions, such as the Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research (KSTAR) project, further underscore Asia’s growing influence in the global fusion research landscape²³. 

Fusion energy development is a global endeavour, with each region adopting unique strategies and policies. The collective efforts of the United States, Europe, and Asia are crucial in overcoming scientific and technological challenges, paving the way for fusion energy to become a viable component of the future energy mix.

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^* Nuclei consist of protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) – https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclei.