Electric trucks - The Sustainability Management Wiki

Authors: Rafaa Mohammad
Edited by: Yetunde Mary, AWONUGBA, Daniyal Mustafa Khan
Last updated: May 18, 2026

Executive summary

Electric trucks can reduce tailpipe emissions from freight transport, but their real-world benefits depend on duty cycle fit, charging strategy, electricity supply, and policy support. For most fleets today, battery-electric trucks (BETs) fit best in urban and regional distribution, where predictable routes and overnight depot charging can cover daily distances. Long-haul routes remain more challenging because larger batteries add cost and weight, and public high-power charging is still limited.

Technology trends are improving feasibility. Advances in battery chemistries (notably wider use of LFP for durability and cost, alongside NMC for higher range) and better thermal management help maintain performance across climates and during fast charging. Range varies with vehicle mass, aerodynamics, speed, temperature, and driving behavior, so fleets should use telematics and route analytics to match vehicle specifications to operations. Megawatt Charging Systems (MCS) could significantly improve long-distance practicality by enabling high-power charging during mandated driver rest breaks, while electric road systems (ERS) remain an emerging option under evaluation through pilot projects.

Economics hinge on total cost of ownership (TCO). BETs often have higher upfront costs but lower operating costs from cheaper energy and reduced maintenance, with cost parity depending on battery prices, electricity and diesel prices, road tolls, and incentives. Depot charging is central to near-term scale-up, but it requires early coordination with utilities, site load studies, and in many cases transformer upgrades. Smart charging and vehicle-to-grid approaches can reduce peak demand and defer grid investments.

Ecological and social outcomes require a full life-cycle view. Cleaner grids and depot-level renewables increase CO₂ savings, while coal-heavy power systems reduce advantages. Battery second life and recycling infrastructure must scale before large volumes of end-of-life truck batteries arrive. Electric trucks can also improve public health through lower noise at low speeds and elimination of tailpipe pollution, but non-exhaust emissions (brake, tire, and road wear particles) remain an important concern. Regulations on safety, hazardous-goods transport, payload allowances, and cybersecurity shape deployment, so organizations should plan electrification as a cross-functional program that integrates operations, energy procurement, workforce training, and compliance.

1 Description and history

Sustainable transportation is essential to sustainable development. It aims to expand access, improve safety, reduce climate impacts, strengthen resilience, and support economic opportunity. It enables the flow of people and things through efficient services and infrastructure. This helps achieve objectives such as fighting poverty, reducing inequality, empowering women, and addressing climate change. In some developing regions, transport costs can make up 30–50% of staple food prices. Efficient and sustainable freight systems can lower food prices and improve access for low-income groups. The transport sector emits significant greenhouse gases. Heavy-duty vehicles, buses, and other commercial vehicles are necessary. They move goods, run public transit, and support many industries.¹^,²

Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) can cut CO₂ emissions in the heavy-duty vehicle sector. Heavy-duty trucking is very cost-sensitive. Unlike passenger cars, which focus on purchase price, trucks are assets that last much longer and run for much higher mileage. For fleet operators, total cost of ownership (TCO)—purchase, energy, maintenance, and resale value—drives decisions. Operational factors, such as charging and refueling times, and payload, also matter when transitioning from diesel trucks to ZEVs. All vehicle categories will not be equally impacted by the unpredictable shift from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).

Drivers for market adoption include expected advances in batteries, fuel cells, hydrogen storage, and energy prices. Barriers, such as short range, limited charging, long charging times, and reduced payload due to weight, may slow adoption.³^,⁴^,⁵

1.1 Duty cycles and use-case fit

The zero-emission truck market is growing quickly. Advances in technology, infrastructure, and policy have made electric trucks cost-competitive in certain countries and under certain conditions. Adoption obstacles are being overcome as experience grows. To deploy battery-electric trucks efficiently, fleets need a clear understanding of duty cycles—urban, regional, and long-haul. Today, the strongest early use cases are urban and regional distribution. Due to battery size, weight, and charging limitations, long-haul route trips longer than 400 km remain challenging. As sales rise, European truck manufacturers are boosting long-haul alternatives and increasing regional electric offerings. Fleets can better match truck specifications to charging strategies by better understanding daily mileage.⁶

Table 1: Duty cycles and use-case fit table

Use Case

Distance Covered

Mode of Charging

Urban

<150km/day Depot Overnight Charging Regional 150-400km/day Depot and DC fast Charging Long-Haul >400km/day

Megawatt Charging Systems

1.2 Battery chemistries and thermal management

Demand for electric vehicle (EV) batteries has risen quickly. Government support, more factories, lower costs per kWh, and stronger public awareness drive this demand. Several EV battery types exist: lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC, for high energy density), lithium iron phosphate (LFP, for safety and life), lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA), solid-state, lithium-sulfur (Li-S), and more. Heavy-duty EVs primarily use lithium-ion batteries. Manufacturers often use NMC when they need higher range. Because of its longer lifespan, lower cost, and thermal stability, LFP is becoming increasingly popular. For individuals who prioritize overall cost over single-charge range, fleet LFP batteries can be up to 35% less expensive per cycle than NMC batteries. By maintaining batteries at the proper temperature and extending their lifespan, innovative thermal management techniques—like liquid cooling—protect batteries.⁷ Thermal management systems regulate battery temperature to maintain performance in cold weather and limit degradation during high-power charging.

Figure 1: Graph of EV battery capacity improvement for different regions over the years, source: EV BATTERY CAPACITY

From Figure 1, we observe a significant improvement in EV battery production capacity over the years. In 2019, battery capacity production was significantly lower, with an overall production of less than 400GWh across different regions, compared to 2025, when production was about 1200GWh across different regions.

1.3 Evidence of real-world range

Several technical factors shape electric vehicle (EV) range, including vehicle weight, aerodynamics, driving style, battery capacity, and charging strategy. Larger batteries require more energy and are heavier, but they increase range. For example, during rapid acceleration, a vehicle weighing 1500 kg consumes 4% more energy than one weighing 1000 kg. Additionally, heavier cars must slow down, which increases total energy use. Losing 100 kg can increase range by 10–11% and reduce battery wear and expenses by 20%. Drag and rolling resistance are influenced by weight. Temperature also matters. Battery efficiency decreases, and heating energy consumption increases in cold weather.

During winter seasons, energy use can rise to 34%, while range can fall by up to 28% compared to summer. Hot temperatures also matter, as batteries need cooling. 52% of EV trips are at 30 km/h or less, and 88% are at 50 km/h or less, according to the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers; modest speeds increase range. Aggressive driving, rapid acceleration, or hard braking uses more energy. Smooth driving and regenerative braking save it. Keeping tires at the right pressure also lowers resistance and boosts range.⁸

1.4 Megawatt Charging System (MCS) detail

The Megawatt Charging System (MCS) provides high-power charging for heavy-duty battery-electric trucks and buses. Compared to standard Combined Charging Systems (CCS), which range from 50 to 400 kW DC, MCS offers significantly higher charging speeds. MCS provides more than 1 megawatt (1,000 kW). Unlike CCS, it uses a unique connector. New electric trucks are compatible with both systems because they have both connectors. On a typical 700 km trip, MCS charging can be arranged during legally mandated driver breaks. This provides up to 60% of daily energy needs in a single 45-minute stop, allowing trucks to recharge without losing operational time.

For regional and long-haul fleets, this can save up to 800 euros per truck each week in lost revenue. MCS improves the practicality of electric trucks for long routes. Most operators now use drivers’ 45-minute rest periods for charging. With MCS, charging from 20% to 80% takes about 40 minutes, enabling another 4.5 hours of driving under EU law. This shifts the constraint from the driver to the vehicle.⁹

1.5 Clarifying electric road systems

Electric road systems (ERS) are infrastructure technologies that deliver energy for vehicle propulsion while the vehicle is in motion, rather than relying only on stationary charging. More than 25 demonstrations and pilot projects worldwide have tested electric road system (ERS) technologies, including projects in Sweden, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. These projects have demonstrated that the technology is advanced and capable of real-world evaluation.

• Prove the full functionality of ERS technology (both conductive and inductive), including road maintenance compatibility and functionality in harsh conditions, including winter climate.

• Show that electric vehicles can finish their drive on an electric roadway with more charge than they began with, even in winter.

• Successful tests have been conducted with electric road systems that charge electric buses and passenger EVs simultaneously.

• Proven significant fuel consumption reduction and GHG-emission savings for ERSV compared to diesel trucks.

• Indicated that ERS technologies meet electromagnetic compatibility regulations (EMC).¹⁰

1.6 Pilot projects and test results

There are ongoing test projects with both inductive electric road technology and conductive ground-based and overhead catenary line electric road technology in several countries worldwide, including France, Italy, Israel, Germany, the USA, China, and Japan. In the USA, the focus has mainly been on inductive technology. Other countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands, have focused on conductive technology.

• In the USA, one of the largest projects currently under construction is an electrified highway in Indiana that will include a testbed for inductive technology.

• In the fall of 2024, China took a crucial step in implementing electric road systems by signing a contract for a first major demonstration project with 14 km catenary lines. Currently, five (5) large ERS pilot projects are planned or under construction, totalling more than 500 km.

• Germany was among the first countries to start testing ERS on public roads and has been operating three ongoing large-scale demonstration projects since 2019 and 2021.

• France has previously mainly conducted tests on test tracks, but several tests are planned to start in 2025 and 2026 on high-traffic highway sections.

• In Italy, one of the more ambitious pilot projects for dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) was built in Chiari between 2021 and 2024.

• In India, the government announced and planned an ERS project in 2023 to install ERS along the entire Delhi-Mumbai highway and potentially along the entire Golden Quadrilateral, totalling 6,000 km.

• The Swedish Transport Administration has cofinanced four electric road demonstrators conducted on public roads in Sweden between 2016 and 2024.

• In the Netherlands, ambitions for electric roads are high, not only at the testing level. The plan is to integrate ERS into the existing infrastructure. Two ERS trajectories are planned by 2032. The first one, between Rotterdam and Antwerp, should be ready by 2030 at 100-120 km. The second distance, which is 180-200 km, is planned between Rotterdam and Venlo.¹⁰

2 Economic performance

This chapter focuses on total cost of ownership (TCO). The three primary parts of TCO analysis are residual value, capital costs (CAPEX), and operating expenses (OPEX).

CAPEX: usually refers to the fixed cost of the truck and the infrastructure for charging that is paid at the time of purchase. Value-added tax (VAT), registration fees, and sales tax are among the subsidies many green and sustainable technologies face globally. These subsidies vary by location and are set independently. This regional sensitivity hampered the proper assessment of TCO for BET (Battery Electric Trucks). CAPEX primarily comprises costs for the glider and battery, registration fees, and sales tax. Another key determinant of TCO analysis is operational expenses (OPEX) incurred over the truck’s useful life.

OPEX: Fuel, maintenance, tolls, and insurance payments are examples of operating costs for trucks. BETs are thought to have significantly lower OPEX than their conventional counterparts, despite having a larger CAPEX. Last but not least, TCO analysis also accounts for the vehicle’s residual value, or the money that could be made from selling the truck.¹¹

2.1 Charging infrastructure and grid readiness at depots

Because most trucks return to depots each day, overnight depot charging can cover many regional routes of up to about 300 km per day. Fast-charging infrastructure at depots and destinations can also electrify trucks that operate in shifts. To ensure adequate grid capacity, early coordination with utility providers is necessary for the rapid deployment of depot charging. Fleets may improve charging during off-peak hours by using Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) solutions and smart charging software, thereby lowering peak demand and often delaying the need for costly transformer modifications. In nations like France, Germany, and the UK, half of all trucks may be charged at depots without relying on public charging infrastructure. Depot charging increases the reliability of operational planning for BETs and is expected to positively influence demand for public charging infrastructure.

The bottleneck in depot electrification is that grid extension plans in the countries analyzed underestimate future demand for depot BET charging. France’s medium-voltage grid is the most prepared for depot charging, especially in industrial areas. Starting in mid-2025, EU electricity market legislation will require grid capacity transparency, simplifying planning for depot electrification.¹²

Careful coordination is required by electricity providers for fleet electrification. This is because depot charging installations, in most cases, require transformer upgrades, site load studies, and smart charging management to avoid peak demand charges. Organizations are encouraged to adopt different charging systems, such as staged charging architectures that include AC overnight charging, high-power DC fast chargers for turn-around operations, and future integration of Megawatt.

Figure 2a: How electric vehicles impact the grid.

Figure 2b: Graph of different EV charging types &impact on the grid over time, source: EV IMPACT, source: empirical EV charging session records.

Figure 2b above shows the variation in electricity consumption for different EV charging types and their impact on the grid. The home multi-family overnight charging system shows the greatest impact and strains the electricity grid more than the workplace or public charging daytime system.

Figure 3: Graph of charging infrastructure growth projections by regions, source: T&E Charging Infrastructure supply and cost model (Transportenvironment.org (2021)

As illustrated in Figure 3 above, the global deployment of Electric Vehicle charging infrastructure is generally expected to grow significantly across different regions, which will enable large-scale adoption of heavy-duty vehicles.

2.2 Telematics, routing, and energy management

Ongoing technology advances have made telematics essential for modern fleets. It combines telecommunications and informatics to support real-time data exchange among vehicles, drivers, and fleet managers, i.e., a technology that monitors and manages electric vehicles (EVs) using data collection and transmission systems. It can optimize route planning, cut energy consumption, and journey times, and greatly enhance fleet efficiency. This system provides real-time information on several EV performance factors, including battery condition, energy usage, and vehicle position. Fleet managers might improve overall energy management, increase vehicle efficiency, and optimize operations by using telematics for electric vehicles.¹³.

2.3 Comparison of lifecycle costs (BET vs. hydrogen)

Before 2030, battery-electric trucks are expected to be the least expensive decarbonization option for most truck classes, compared with fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in terms of Total Cost of Ownership (TCO). Their lower operational expenses compared to diesel offset their increased upfront cost. Fuel-cell trucks powered by renewable hydrogen are expected to become cost-competitive with diesel trucks by 2035. Furthermore, the cost-effectiveness of diesel vehicles will be difficult for trucks with traditional combustion engines that run on alternative, low-greenhouse-gas fuels, including hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), e-diesel, and bio-compressed natural gas (bio-CNG). Their TCO is expected to be 15% to 45% higher than that of their zero-emission counterparts by 2030, and trucks powered by hydrogen internal combustion engines might not be as economical as their diesel or zero-emission equivalents. However, over time, they are expected to have a lower total cost of ownership (TCO) than traditional trucks powered by e-diesel and bio-CNG.¹⁴

Hydrogen is particularly well-suited for long-haul and heavy-duty applications because of its extended range and rapid refueling. In contrast, electric batteries are more effective in short-haul and urban contexts, where charging infrastructure is more accessible, and emissions standards are more stringent. Combining these technologies will likely be necessary for sustainable trucking, enabling logistics companies to reduce emissions and improve environmental performance.¹⁵.

Figure 4: Graph of the total cost of ownership for diesel, electric, and hydrogen fuel cells, source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Total-cost-of-ownership-for-diesel-electric-and-hydrogen-fuel-cell-long-haul_fig7_335104931

From Figure 4, we observe a slight change in the TCO of different vehicles over the years. 2020 has the highest TCO in comparison with 2025. The future TCO projection for these vehicles is expected to drop by 2030.

2.4 Timeline for cost parity

Important qualifications are needed to support the claim that heavy-duty vehicles would reach cost parity globally by 2035. The anticipated date of TCO parity is highly sensitive to changes in key variables, including battery and electricity costs and public policy incentives. For example, if battery prices fall 20% faster than current forecasts, the cost-parity date could move up to as early as 2032, while a 20% slowdown in price reductions could push parity back beyond 2037. Similarly, shifts in regional electricity or diesel prices affect economic conditions in both directions across markets. Incorporating this sensitivity range clarifies the fundamental uncertainty and stresses the need for flexible planning by fleet operators and regulators.

Today, for most use cases, conventional ICE trucks still hold a TCO advantage over their zero-emission counterparts. That portion is increasing as zero-emission trucks become more affordable, and differentiated road tolls and carbon pricing further shift the balance in their favor.¹⁶ In 2024, sales of electric medium- and heavy-duty vehicles increased for the third consecutive year, surpassing 90,000 globally. In stark contrast to the drop in sales between 2018 and 2021, year-over-year growth was about 80%. Chinese sales, which more than doubled between 2023 and 2024, were a major factor in this surge. More than 80% of all electric trucks sold globally in 2024 were sold in China. TCO parity varies widely and depends on the specific duty cycle, regional road tolls, and local electricity and diesel prices. For many regional delivery routes, parity is achievable before 2030, while long-haul parity remains heavily dependent on continued battery price reductions and public subsidies.¹⁷.

Electric cars will soon match combustion engines in price. Cost parity is becoming increasingly realistic first in the small-car segment, where smaller batteries and simpler designs make EVs more cost-effective than ever.¹⁸

Figure 5: Graph of adoption rates of electric trucks across major markets, sources: Market Growth Report (MG) & Global Market Insight (GMI)

According to Figure 5, the global market for electric trucks is expected to expand significantly across regions due to stricter emissions regulations and incentives for zero-emission freight transport.

3 Ecological performance

Ecological performance helps determine whether a technology is genuinely sustainable. The ecological performance of electric trucks must be evaluated in terms of emissions, life-cycle environmental impacts, and resource utilization to be deemed more sustainable than diesel and other conventional options.¹⁹

3.1 The context of global emissions

Because electric trucks have no tailpipe emissions, they can reduce local air pollution and direct greenhouse gas emissions. However, the type of energy used to produce electricity—including whether it comes from renewable or non-renewable sources—determines the environmental impact. In 2022, heavy-duty road freight produced about 1,600 Mt (million metric tons) of CO₂ emissions worldwide, or almost one-fifth of all CO₂ emissions from the transportation sector. Over the course of their lifetimes, electric trucks generate 63% fewer emissions overall; in other words, given the present world-average energy mix, they are responsible for roughly 37% more direct CO₂ emissions from road transport than conventional diesel vehicles over a comparable operational period. Despite accounting for a smaller share of the vehicle fleet, heavy-duty trucks and buses contribute around 24% of greenhouse gas emissions in the global transportation industry.¹⁹.

Increases in electric truck deployment and the rapid adoption of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including electric and hydrogen fuel-cell heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), and recent stringent CO₂ standards in the European Union and the United States will help enable the rapid electrification required to decarbonize the sector. However, advances will be needed worldwide to reverse the trend of increasing emissions. By 2050, the Net Zero Emissions (NZE) Scenario requires that emissions decrease by 15% between 2022 and 2030, or about 2% annually. More nations must embrace, bolster, and harmonize HDV fuel-economy norms to do this.²⁰

Figure 6: Graph of life-cycle emissions (over 150,000 km) of electric and conventional vehicles in Europe in 2015, source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Life-cycle-emissions-over-150-000-km-of-electric-and-conventional-vehicles-in-Europe-in_fig1_323118874

From Figure 6 above, the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from electric vehicles are much lower than those of the conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. In Europe, a comparison revealed that Battery Electric Vehicles produce a substantial amount of lower emissions over a 150,000km lifetime if the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources.

3.2 Comparative efficiency of zero-emission options

BEVs produce zero emissions during operation. However, the ecological burden of BEVs depends on how the electricity is generated. BEVs charged from renewable sources, for example, wind or solar power, are more environmentally friendly than those charged from coal- or gas-powered plants. Like BEVs, FCEVs emit zero pollutants during operation (only water vapor). Nonetheless, if hydrogen is produced from natural gas rather than from clean hydrogen processes like electrolysis driven by renewable energy, it can be carbon-intensive.²¹

On a well-to-wheel basis, BEVs are substantially more energy-efficient; they convert between 75% and 81% of their electrical energy from the grid into wheel power. The large amount of power required for hydrogen synthesis, the inefficiencies of current fuel cell technology, and the substantial energy losses incurred during electrolysis, compression, and hydrogen transportation are the main drivers of FCEVs’ final energy efficiency (grid-to-wheel) of 38%.²²

Figure 7: Comparison of fuel-to-wheel (FTW) efficiency for different powertrain systems, source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51499127/figure/fig4/AS:305824443453444@1449925637197/Comparison-of-fuel-to-wheel-FTW-efficiency-for-different-powertrain-systems.png

3.2 Comparative efficiency of zero-emission options

Figure 8: Graph of payload vs. range trade-offs under evolving legal allowances, sources: Analyses from the International Council on Clean Transportation and the International Energy Agency on electric truck performance and regulatory frameworks.

As depicted in Figure 8 above, increasing battery capacity to increase driving range can limit Payload capacity for battery-electric vehicles due to increased battery weight. Nonetheless, regulated weight allowances for zero-emission vehicles help to alleviate this trade-off.

5.4 Cybersecurity and data management

As electric trucks increasingly depend on telematics and connectivity, data protection has become a regulatory necessity. According to UNECE WP.²⁹ regulations (notably R155 and R156, effective from 2025), vehicle manufacturers are required to establish a certified Cybersecurity Management System (CSMS) to obtain type approval in Europe and safeguard fleets from cyberattack threats.³⁵

6 Conclusions

Using battery-electric trucks (BETs) is one of the most practical ways to reduce carbon emissions from heavy-duty road freight, which currently accounts for up to 35% of the industry’s CO₂ emissions. This updated assessment shows that the technology has advanced far beyond the pilot stage.³⁶ Long-distance and regional applications are now conceivable thanks to the deployment of Megawatt Charging Systems (MCS) and developments in battery chemistries. In terms of grid-to-wheel efficiency, BETs are quickly approaching total cost of ownership (TCO) parity and outperforming hydrogen alternatives, especially when smart depot charging reduces infrastructure upgrade costs. However, viewing electric trucks as components of a larger energy system is necessary to reap their environmental benefits fully. Beyond the cars, the shift necessitates extensive personnel retraining, robust information security protocols, and stringent safety regulations for hazardous materials. Even if problems such as non-exhaust particle emissions persist, removing diesel tailpipe pollutants would substantially benefit environmental health, well-being, and the climate.

Three major outstanding constraints must be immediately addressed by future research to unlock a zero-emission freight sector completely:

1. Scaling of battery recycling: Before the first major wave of commercial truck batteries being retired, concentrate on building out end-of-life battery recycling infrastructure and creating direct recycling methods to create a fully circular economy.

2. Grid infrastructure and depot readiness: To handle high simultaneous charging demands without upsetting local grids, further research is required on how to quickly upgrade utility-side infrastructure, use smart-charging algorithms, and create depot microgrids.

3. Long-haul payload economics: To guarantee that zero-emission trucks can transport long-distance freight as profitably as diesel trucks, ongoing examination of the trade-offs between battery energy density, aerodynamic capability, and legal weight limits is required.

In conclusion, switching from diesel to electric trucks requires technology improvements, environmental and social safeguards, clear legal frameworks, and solutions to current commercial barriers. Building sophisticated infrastructure for maintenance and charging, advancing battery technology, and harmonizing policy and regulation requirements are all necessary for the widespread use of electric trucks.

References

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1
United Nations. Sustainable transport, sustainable development. Interagency report for the second Global Sustainable Transport Conference. 2021.
2
IRENA (2024), Decarbonising hard-to-abate sectors with renewables: Perspectives for the G7, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. https://www.irena.org/Decarbonising-hard-to-abate-sectors-with-renewables-Enablers-and-recommendations/Transport-sector/Heavy-duty-trucks
3
Fleet maintenance and Telematics By: Madeleine Amestoy https://brightorder.com/blog/heavy-duty-vehicle-electrictransition/#:~:text=Risk%20to%20Climate%20Goals:%20The%20slow%20transition,outsized%20impact%20of%20th ese%20vehicles%20on%20emissions.
4
Techno-economic uptake potential of zero-emission trucks in Europe. by Dennis Tol, Thomas Frateur, Maarten Verbeek, Iddo Riemersma, Hans Mulder
5
Zero-Emission Commercial Vehicles Accelerating the Transition 2025 Factbook for Investors. September 18, 2025
6
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2025). Trends in heavy-duty electric vehicles – Global EV Outlook 2025. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025/trends-in-heavy-duty-electric-vehicles
7
Towards Automotive. (2025). Battery Chemistry for Electric Vehicles (EVs) Market Insights. https://www.towardsautomotive.com/insights/battery-chemistry-for-electric-vehicles-market-sizing
8
Understanding the determinants of Electric Vehicle Range: A Multidimensional Survey 7, May 2025 (https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/10/4259)
9
What is MCS charging and what does it mean for electric trucks – Henrik Engdahl 06, June 2025 (https://www.volvotrucks.com/en-en/news-stories/insights/articles/2025/jun/what-is-mcs-charging.html)
10
The State of Electric Road Systems: An Overview of Central Aspects – Matts Andersson, Josefin Carlsson & Aaron Åberg, Fraunhofer ISI: Patrick Plötz & Till Gnann. 7 July 2025.
11
The Economic Feasibility of Battery Electric Trucks: A review of the Total Cost of Ownership Estimates – 19, January 2025. (https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/2/429)
12
Depot charging can support most regional electric truck operations – 16, May 2025 (Review Energy (2025). Depot charging can support most regional electric truck operations.)
13
Electric Vehicle Telematics – https://www.radius.com/en-gb/telematics/electric-vehicles/
14
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Executive summary

1 Description and history

1.1 Duty cycles and use-case fit

1.2 Battery chemistries and thermal management

1.3 Evidence of real-world range

1.4 Megawatt Charging System (MCS) detail

1.5 Clarifying electric road systems

1.6 Pilot projects and test results

2 Economic performance

2.1 Charging infrastructure and grid readiness at depots

2.2 Telematics, routing, and energy management

2.3 Comparison of lifecycle costs (BET vs. hydrogen)

2.4 Timeline for cost parity

3 Ecological performance

3.1 The context of global emissions

3.2 Comparative efficiency of zero-emission options

3.2 Comparative efficiency of zero-emission options

5.4 Cybersecurity and data management

6 Conclusions

References

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