Geothermal power - The Sustainability Management Wiki

Authors: Alexandre Jammet, Hugo Martínez Salazar
Edited by: –
Last updated: May 17, 2026

Executive summary

Geothermal energy uses heat stored beneath the Earth’s crust for direct heating and electricity generation. It is most viable in tectonically active regions where drilling can access hot fluids or steam. Organizations commonly apply geothermal energy for building heat and hot water, district heating, and industrial process heat; geothermal heat pumps represent the largest share of direct-use capacity. For electricity, projects typically use dry steam, flash steam, or binary-cycle plants, and reservoir temperature largely determines which technology fits.

Geothermal projects often require high upfront investment—especially for drilling and exploration—but they can deliver low and predictable operating costs over long asset lifetimes. High capacity factors (often around 90–95%) support steady output and revenue compared with variable renewables. In many settings, geothermal systems can reduce heating costs for end users and can also provide relatively low-cost thermal energy storage. Scaling deployment could create significant employment, including roles that align with drilling and subsurface engineering capabilities found in the oil and gas sector.

Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from geothermal electricity are typically low, and land footprints are often smaller than those of many other renewable technologies. Key risks include water management and potential contamination from dissolved minerals if fluids are mishandled, noise and visual impacts during drilling and operation, and induced seismicity from deep drilling and reservoir stimulation. Modern designs increasingly mitigate these impacts through reinjection and closed-loop approaches, including advanced systems that minimize contact between circulating water and geothermal fluids.

Social acceptance and policy stability strongly influence project success. Communities may raise concerns about induced micro-earthquakes and local environmental impacts, so transparent monitoring, clear risk communication, and inclusive engagement are essential. Because geothermal projects can take a decade or more to develop, consistent long-term policy support—such as clear permitting rules, risk-sharing mechanisms, and targeted incentives—can reduce uncertainty and accelerate investment and deployment.

1 Description and history

1.1 Definition of geothermal energy

Geothermal energy refers to the extraction of the thermal energy stored beneath the Earth’s crust. This heat originates primarily from the decay of radioactive isotopes such as uranium and thorium, as well as residual heat from the planet’s formation. The convection of the Earth’s mantle creates an almost constant supply of heat.

However, the distribution of this heat is not uniform across the crust. Tectonically active regions near plate boundaries often provide the best geothermal resources because the crust is thinner or fractured, allowing magma and hot fluids to approach the surface.

Organizations and communities use geothermal energy directly for bathing and swimming, space heating, greenhouse heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial process heat, and geothermal heat pumps. Geothermal heat pumps are the most important direct-use technology; in 2020, they accounted for 71.6% of installed direct-use capacity.¹

Beyond direct uses, geothermal energy can be used for electricity generation in geothermal power plants. Developers can choose from several energy-conversion technologies, depending on resource conditions and project maturity. These include direct steam expansion (dry steam), single- and multistage steam flashing (flash steam), organic binary Rankine cycles (binary cycle), and two-phase flow expanders.²

1.2 How geothermal power plants work

Geothermal power plants convert the heat stored in geothermal reservoirs into electricity. Operators generally extract hot water or steam through wells drilled into the reservoir and use it to drive a turbine connected to an electric generator. Operators then reinject the fluid into the reservoir to sustain pressure and repeat the cycle.

Geothermal power plants generally fall into three main categories, and the choice of which type to build largely depends on reservoir temperature.³

– Dry steam power plant

Dry steam power plants utilize geothermal reservoirs that naturally produce steam, which are relatively uncommon in nature. In these systems, operators route steam from the reservoir directly to a turbine, where the pressure drop converts thermal energy into mechanical energy that drives an electric generator. After passing through the turbine and condensing, the water is reinjected back into the geothermal reservoir to maintain pressure and support sustainable operation.

Dry steam is the oldest geothermal power plant design and remains in use at sites such as The Geysers in Northern California.

– Flash steam power plant

Flash steam plants are among the most widely deployed geothermal power plant technologies today. In these systems, high-temperature geothermal fluids (typically above 182 °C) are extracted from geothermal reservoirs and brought to the surface under high pressure. When the fluid enters a low-pressure tank at the surface, the sudden pressure drop causes a portion of the hot water to rapidly vaporize, or “flash,” into steam. The generated steam is then directed to a turbine that drives an electric generator. If liquid remains in the low-pressure tank, operators can flash it again in a second, lower-pressure tank before reinjecting the remaining fluid into the reservoir.

– Binary-cycle power plant

Binary-cycle geothermal power plants can use lower-temperature resources, which expands the range of locations where projects can operate. Unlike dry steam and flash systems, the geothermal fluid does not drive the turbine directly because the temperature is typically too low to produce steam efficiently (usually below 182 °C). Instead, the fluid passes through a heat exchanger to heat up a secondary “binary ” fluid, which has a lower boiling point, making it possible to vaporize and drive the turbine. The system then condenses the secondary fluid and recirculates it in a closed loop.

1.3 Historical development

In 1904, Larderello, Italy hosted the first successful attempt to produce electricity from geothermal energy.⁴ After the pilot proved successful, developers built a commercial power plant on the site in 1913. The development of geothermal energy in Larderello was connected to earlier industrial activities in the region, where geothermal fluids had been used in the past for the extraction of chemical substances.

For decades, Larderello hosted the only geothermal power plant. International expansion began in 1958, when New Zealand commissioned its first geothermal power plant. Soon after, the United States entered the geothermal market in 1960 by developing facilities at The Geysers in California.

As of 2020, there are 24 countries with active geothermal power plants.

2 Economic performance

2.1 High installation costs

Geothermal heat pump investment costs vary widely with system capacity and installation location, largely because subsurface conditions differ across sites and between urban and rural areas. Installation typically costs more than a conventional heat pump because drilling drives a large share of total cost. For a homeowner wanting an 8 kW geothermal heat pump, the investment and installation cost is approximately 12,700 euros, compared to 8,000 euros for a conventional heat pump.⁵

2.2 Low and stable maintenance and operating costs

Operating costs remain relatively stable and low over time, mainly covering maintenance and the electricity used by the heat pump and auxiliary equipment. A borehole often lasts around 50 years, while a heat pump typically lasts about 20 years. These systems can pay back quickly—often in four to thirteen years—especially in shared spaces such as museums or multipurpose halls.

In many designs, the ground provides about 75% of the heat used to warm a home. For example, heating a private home may require about 16 MWh of heat per year, which can correspond to roughly 1 MWh of annual electricity use. At typical electricity prices, this can translate into operating costs of about €400 per year.⁵

When annual maintenance is included, the total annual operating cost rises to about €556. On average, geothermal power plants can have lower maintenance costs than wind or solar, with estimates around €10 per MWh.

Geothermal power plants also achieve high capacity factors because they can operate about 90–95% of the time—roughly three to four times higher than solar or wind. As a result, output stays relatively steady, which supports stable revenue.⁶

2.3 Low heat production costs

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for geothermal networks can be relatively low. In 2017, it was approximately 69.1 euros per MWh in France. Furthermore, for direct use of geothermal systems, the LCOE is around 17 to 42 euros per MWh worldwide. These costs can undercut wind and solar in some contexts and can help geothermal heating networks reduce energy poverty. It is estimated that households directly using geothermal systems save an average of 0.13 to 0.26 euros per kWh compared to standard consumption via the electricity grid. This can represent roughly a 30% reduction in a total electricity bill.⁶

2.4 Low energy storage costs

Geothermal power plants can also provide energy storage. Estimates place costs around €5 per kWh of stored energy, which can be lower than lithium-ion batteries in some applications.⁶

2.5 A source of employment

Scaling this technology could generate substantial job growth in the sector. It is estimated that the number of jobs in the sector will increase sixfold by 2030, representing more than 1 million jobs worldwide for geothermal energy alone. Geothermal is also labor-intensive per MW installed, with estimates of about 5–10 jobs per MW—around twice as many as solar and roughly three times as many as wind.⁶

2.6 A massive investment

The technical and material skills required for the development of geothermal power plants are virtually identical, with approximately 80% similarity, to those used in the oil and gas industry, such as drilling and pipelines for transporting various fluids. This similarity makes this technology highly attractive to these industries, leading them to invest heavily and accelerate the development of geothermal energy.

Furthermore, major global powers like China, the United States, and Europe are particularly interested in the large-scale deployment of this technology through extensive district heating networks.

Analysts estimate total investment of about $2.5 trillion by 2050, with annual investment reaching up to $140 billion per year.⁷^,⁸

3 Ecological performance

3.1 CO₂ emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions from geothermal electricity generation are relatively low. These emissions may vary depending on the technology used and the specific characteristics of the geothermal reservoir. Across multiple studies, researchers estimate median CO₂ emissions for geothermal electricity at: 32 g CO₂-eq/kWh for EGS (enhanced geothermal systems) binary plants, 47 g CO₂-eq/kWh for HT (high-temperature) flash plants, and 11.3 g CO₂-eq/kWh for HT binary plants.⁹

3.2 Resource use and land impact

Geothermal power plants typically have a relatively small land footprint compared with renewables such as solar or wind, which often require larger surface areas.¹⁰

Water is the primary resource used in geothermal power plants, mainly for cooling and reinjection. The amount of water needed depends on the size of the plant and the technology used. In plants that require reinjection, the water does not need to be potable, since the geothermal fluid in the reservoir is not suitable for drinking in the first place.¹¹

3.3 Environmental impact and risks

Environmental impacts generally fall into two groups: direct and indirect.

Direct environmental impacts of geothermal energy include land use, noise generation during drilling and operation, visual impact on the landscape, and possible effects on local air and water. These affect the immediate area surrounding the facility and can be mitigated with the right environmental management.

Indirect environmental impacts include greenhouse gas emissions coming from the reservoir, water consumption, induced seismic activity, and impacts on surrounding ecosystems.

This technology also has a risk of water pollution, since geothermal fluids may contain dissolved minerals and trace elements such as arsenic, mercury, and boron. If these substances are not properly handled, they could contaminate surface water or groundwater systems. To minimize this risk, modern geothermal power plants commonly employ closed-loop systems.

Lastly, geothermal resources are sometimes located in regions with unique biodiversity, such as hot springs and geothermal vents. These ecosystems can host specialized organisms, so project developers must manage them carefully to maintain biodiversity.¹²

3.4 Changes in environmental performance over time

Design improvements have reduced the environmental impacts of geothermal power plants over time. To avoid the release of fluids and gases from the reservoir into the environment, modern plants use reinjection systems to return the geothermal fluids. In addition, the development of binary-cycle power plants further reduces the environmental impact, since the geothermal fluid remains in a closed loop. Furthermore, next-generation geothermal plants create a true closed-loop system. Instead of relying on a natural fracture network, these systems create a radiator-like structure that circulates water to extract heat without direct contact with geothermal fluids.³

4 Social impact

4.1 A limited source of employment

As mentioned earlier, the development of geothermal energy worldwide will create a large number of specialised jobs that will compete with the oil and gas sector. However, with the oil industry declining in recent years, largely due to the development of renewable energies, the number of people trained in this field is decreasing. It will therefore be necessary to revitalise and enhance these types of training programs to enable the expansion of the sector.⁵

4.2 Easy access to energy

In countries with limited energy access or in isolated volcanic regions, geothermal energy can improve reliability and help communities become more self-sufficient. For example, it can heat an entire island, as in Iceland, where 90% of homes are heated using the country’s geothermal resources, that is, thanks to the island’s volcanoes. Residents can access stable, affordable heating without relying on fossil fuels such as oil or coal, which increases energy independence.¹³

This technology can also provide access to energy in developing countries like Kenya. Indeed, Kenya is located on a tectonic fault, resulting in significant volcanic activity in its subsurface, with a total geothermal potential estimated at 10 GW. Thanks to this natural resource, Kenya produces 48% of its electricity, thus providing its population with access to energy.¹⁴

4.3 Positive impact on health

Using geothermal energy can improve public health by displacing electricity generation that relies on coal or gas. Geothermal electricity generation typically emits far less local air pollution, such as sulfur dioxide or fine particulate matter, than fossil-based generation. As a result, it can reduce exposure to pollutants that are common in cities, which helps lower respiratory risks and improve living conditions.

Furthermore, geothermal energy does not emit greenhouse gases in large quantities, which will contribute to a long-term improvement in human life on Earth.¹⁵

4.4 Acceptance of the populations

Social acceptance is a key success factor for geothermal projects. Local communities often worry about potential environmental impacts or safety risks, even though geothermal energy is a relatively clean renewable resource.

The main concern raised is residents’ worries about micro-earthquakes that can be generated during the deep drilling necessary for the efficient exploitation of underground heat. These phenomena are known as induced earthquakes. They are typically low magnitude and rarely pose direct risks to residents. However, they can still worry local populations and sometimes lead to public debates that can result in the cancellation of certain geothermal projects.

Public acceptance is therefore crucial. Project teams should address local concerns, which often stem from the technology’s novelty and limited public awareness. Project developers should inform residents near potential sites so they understand how the technology works and what environmental impacts may occur.

Developers and public agencies can also hold more meetings in affected municipalities to support meaningful citizen involvement. These steps can increase local acceptance and speed implementation. Overall, public acceptance can be as important as economic and technical considerations when developing geothermal projects.

¹⁶

5 Political and legal aspects

5.1 Policies influencing geothermal development

High upfront costs make government policy and regulatory incentives central to geothermal power development. Countries that scale geothermal infrastructure often pair comprehensive regulatory frameworks with long-term financial incentives and risk-reduction programs for exploration and drilling.

Geothermal energy has several advantages, particularly its independence from weather conditions and its ability to provide reliable base-load electricity. However, long project timelines remain a major challenge. A project often takes 10 years or more from initial exploration to full operation. That timeline can exceed political cycles, especially when cheaper and faster options appear available.¹⁷

Furthermore, most products and equipment used for geothermal power production are often designed for other industries, such as mining. This limits the existence of a dedicated geothermal industry that could advocate for stronger political support, except for the geothermal heat pump sector, which has developed more rapidly.

International mechanisms can also support geothermal development, not only national governments. One example is the United Nations Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which allows renewable energy projects to generate certified emission reductions (CERs) that can be traded as carbon credits. A notable example is the Darajat III geothermal power plant in Indonesia, which was registered under the CDM in 2007. The project generates approximately 650,000 carbon credits per year, reducing the lifecycle cost of geothermal electricity by around 2–4%.¹⁸

Regulation also shapes how projects progress from exploration to operation. In many countries, deep geothermal projects are regulated in a similar way to mining resources, since both involve the extraction of subsurface resources. Without a dedicated geothermal framework, permitting and approvals can slow projects significantly.

5.2 Examples of national geothermal policies

The role of government policy in geothermal development can be studied by observing different national case studies. Different countries have adopted distinct policy approaches depending on their priorities, regulatory framework, energy strategies, and outside and inside events.

In the United States, the development of geothermal power plants has been strongly influenced by federal legislation supporting renewable energy research and development. The first regulatory framework for leasing federal lands for geothermal exploitation and development was the Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 This was soon followed by the Geothermal Energy Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1974, which provided funding for research and technological development. This was in part motivated by the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo that happened the previous year. Later policies like the Investment Tax Credit (ITC) and Production Tax Credit (PTC) were developed to further support geothermal projects with financial incentives. More recent legislation, including the Energy Act of 2020 and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021, has continued to support geothermal development through research funding and programs focused on advanced geothermal technologies. Also, it is important to mention the Lower Energy Costs Act, which managed to create parity between geothermal, gas, and oil wells with respect to federal permitting, increased the federal geothermal lease sales, and expedited permitting timelines.¹⁹

Outside of the USA, there are many examples of successful and unsuccessful policies.

The experience of Macedonia shows how political instability can negatively affect geothermal development. During the energy crisis of the 1970s, geothermal development received a vast amount of support from the government (like other countries). This led to several successful projects during the 1980s. However, political and economic transitions during the 1990s resulted in unstable governments, which shifted the political priorities to short-term political goals, leading to a big abandonment of the geothermal sector.

Another example is Italy. Even though historically Italy has been a leader in the geothermal sector, the privatisation of the national electricity utility ENEL shifted the energy policy towards cheaper energy imports. As a result, investment in new geothermal projects plummeted.

Finally, Iceland represents one of the most successful examples of geothermal implementation. The key to this was the long-term government support and consistent political commitment in the country.¹⁷

These case studies demonstrate how the success of geothermal development is highly dependent on political stability, regulatory framework, and long-term support for the technology.

5.3 Pros and cons of policies

For the development of geothermal energy, public policies play a crucial role because this new technology requires very high investments to begin construction, particularly those related to geological analysis of the subsurface to mitigate risks, as well as drilling. Governments therefore implement numerous policies and measures, such as subsidies, risk-sharing mechanisms, and tax credits. This helps to limit financial risks for companies in the sector and makes it highly attractive to private investors.

Public policies also accelerate the development of renewable technologies like geothermal energy by fully financing projects. This allows countries to improve their energy security by reducing their dependence on imported fossil fuels and moving towards a more sustainable energy mix.²⁰

However, subsidies provided by public policies can be misused, especially if the project could have been profitable even without them. This leads to exceptional gains for some companies and thus restricts funding for other projects that genuinely require it. Furthermore, if policies impose too many standards or overly complex regulations, as well as excessive administrative procedures for project approval, this can discourage investors from undertaking such projects, slow down the development of geothermal energy, or even lead to the abandonment of some projects.²¹

It is therefore crucial that public policies are well-designed and fully aligned with the development of this technology.

References

1
Lund, J. W. & Toth, A. N. Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2020 worldwide review. Geothermics 90, 101915 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101915
2
Tester, J. W. et al. The Future of Geothermal Energy: Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States in the 21st Century. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006). https://energy.mit.edu/publication/the-future-of-geothermal-energy/
3
U.S. Department of Energy. Geothermal Electricity Generation. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy(n.d.). https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/geothermal/geothermal-electricity-generation
4
Chen, X., Liu, X. & Kumar, N. Historical Pattern Analysis of Global Geothermal Power Development. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2024). https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/86996.pdf
5
Geothermies. Une énergie durable et compétitive.(n.d.) https://www.geothermies.fr/une-energie-durable-competitive
6
ZipDo. Geothermal energy statistics. (n.d.) https://zipdo.co/geothermal-energy-statistics/
7
International Energy Agency. The future of geothermal energy: Executive summary. (2024) https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-geothermal-energy/executive-summary
8
Economic Times Energy World. Geothermal energy could meet 15% of global electricity demand growth by 2050: IEA. (2024) https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/geothermal-energy-could-meet-15-of-global-electricity-demand-growth-by-2050-iea/116305780
9
Eberle, A., Warner, E., Corbett, J. & Heath, G. Systematic Review of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Geothermal Electricity. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2017).
10
PCC. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (2022). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf
11
Union of Concerned Scientists. Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy. Union of Concerned Scientists (5 March 2013). https://www.ucs.org/resources/environmental-impacts-geothermal-energy
12
Sustainability Directory. What Are Geothermal Energy’s Environmental Impacts? Sustainability Directory (2 Dec 2025). https://energy.sustainability-directory.com/question/what-are-geothermal-energys-environmental-impacts/
13
International Energy Agency Geothermal. Iceland. (2020) https://www.iea-gia.org/our-members/iceland
14
Le Monde. Au Kenya, le pari gagnant de la géothermie. (2023, 3 September) https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2023/09/03/au-kenya-le-pari-gagnant-de-la-geothermie_6187673_3212.html
15
International Geothermal Association. Public health benefits of geothermal. (n.d.) https://geothermal.org/our-impact/blog/public-health-benefits-geothermal
16
Renoth, R., Buchner, E., Schmieder, M., Drews, M., Keim, M., & Plechaty, M. Social acceptance of geothermal technology on a global view: A systematic review. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 13, 49. (2023).
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13705-023-00432-1
17
Popovski, K. Political Acceptance of Geothermal Energy. United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme (UNU-GTP) (2003). https://geocom.geonardo.com/assets/elearning/10.7.UNU-GTP-2003-01-03.pdf
18
Fridleifsson, I. B., Bertani, R., Huenges, E., Lund, J. W., Ragnarsson, Á. & Rybach, L. Geothermal Energy. In: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. IPCC (2011). https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/Chapter-4-Geothermal-Energy-1.pdf
19
CRES Forum. Geothermal Energy Policy: Conservative Legacy and Strategic Future. Conservative Energy & Sustainability Forum (n.d.). https://cresforum.org/blog/geothermal-energy-policy-conservative-legacy-and-strategic-future/
20
Compernolle, T., Welkenhuysen, K., Petitclerc, E., Maes, D., & Piessens, K. The impact of policy measures on profitability and risk in geothermal energy investments. Energy Economics, 84, 104524. (2019) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988319303196
21
Elsevier. ScienceDirect article. (2025). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666188825008081

1
Lund, J. W. & Toth, A. N. Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2020 worldwide review. Geothermics 90, 101915 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101915
2
Tester, J. W. et al. The Future of Geothermal Energy: Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States in the 21st Century. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006). https://energy.mit.edu/publication/the-future-of-geothermal-energy/
3
U.S. Department of Energy. Geothermal Electricity Generation. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy(n.d.). https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/geothermal/geothermal-electricity-generation
4
Chen, X., Liu, X. & Kumar, N. Historical Pattern Analysis of Global Geothermal Power Development. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2024). https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/86996.pdf
5
Geothermies. Une énergie durable et compétitive.(n.d.) https://www.geothermies.fr/une-energie-durable-competitive
6
ZipDo. Geothermal energy statistics. (n.d.) https://zipdo.co/geothermal-energy-statistics/
7
International Energy Agency. The future of geothermal energy: Executive summary. (2024) https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-geothermal-energy/executive-summary
8
Economic Times Energy World. Geothermal energy could meet 15% of global electricity demand growth by 2050: IEA. (2024) https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/geothermal-energy-could-meet-15-of-global-electricity-demand-growth-by-2050-iea/116305780
9
Eberle, A., Warner, E., Corbett, J. & Heath, G. Systematic Review of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Geothermal Electricity. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2017).
10
PCC. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (2022). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf
11
Union of Concerned Scientists. Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy. Union of Concerned Scientists (5 March 2013). https://www.ucs.org/resources/environmental-impacts-geothermal-energy
12
Sustainability Directory. What Are Geothermal Energy’s Environmental Impacts? Sustainability Directory (2 Dec 2025). https://energy.sustainability-directory.com/question/what-are-geothermal-energys-environmental-impacts/
13
International Energy Agency Geothermal. Iceland. (2020) https://www.iea-gia.org/our-members/iceland
14
Le Monde. Au Kenya, le pari gagnant de la géothermie. (2023, 3 September) https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2023/09/03/au-kenya-le-pari-gagnant-de-la-geothermie_6187673_3212.html
15
International Geothermal Association. Public health benefits of geothermal. (n.d.) https://geothermal.org/our-impact/blog/public-health-benefits-geothermal
16
Renoth, R., Buchner, E., Schmieder, M., Drews, M., Keim, M., & Plechaty, M. Social acceptance of geothermal technology on a global view: A systematic review. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 13, 49. (2023).
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13705-023-00432-1
17
Popovski, K. Political Acceptance of Geothermal Energy. United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme (UNU-GTP) (2003). https://geocom.geonardo.com/assets/elearning/10.7.UNU-GTP-2003-01-03.pdf
18
Fridleifsson, I. B., Bertani, R., Huenges, E., Lund, J. W., Ragnarsson, Á. & Rybach, L. Geothermal Energy. In: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. IPCC (2011). https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/Chapter-4-Geothermal-Energy-1.pdf
19
CRES Forum. Geothermal Energy Policy: Conservative Legacy and Strategic Future. Conservative Energy & Sustainability Forum (n.d.). https://cresforum.org/blog/geothermal-energy-policy-conservative-legacy-and-strategic-future/
20
Compernolle, T., Welkenhuysen, K., Petitclerc, E., Maes, D., & Piessens, K. The impact of policy measures on profitability and risk in geothermal energy investments. Energy Economics, 84, 104524. (2019) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988319303196
21
Elsevier. ScienceDirect article. (2025). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666188825008081